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PU ae da o Supe] tl arse rp: ee SPM SlaaseQin mw | , . rare nan ‘ Pee eee ee Stee eee ere ee ee nee | rrr ee ‘ eh hem, belo Dw ateP LO pieae we Wee ferkew a ki aet et Wen iy eo Itt ag imewi a aan rayne ar ee te eee ere de weet P eh ere yt Maw dpa idinty Be mas ede m es nate to . ’ + + . rn ie ee eee Pe: wet re ‘ x eee ts ca aatart a > + ry * . . we SRN Rue TG Riedy gt ed wok pralarees eras ‘ wy 4 re wee ine ' 7 Pera eee Pr ee + i sive a Benes rea . gee ie cw tke a a gh 6 PSE ed ‘ Sy ekyem « % 7 ae we i” fro & saadl ive Ae vas Wie < ‘ lod sa sitioret vee nog a f Ee ' es eomrded Serre Peete saa > 1 waned eetinen ests abe fea Ve eeee oh 70 af . see Sb Et eee 0eb 084 4 ohio is aearan , Pererrer ecny Pipe wear re Woe eee : Gag 004 A nye oe we iene Sh een Ty vhbiwe te edi atin bee 16 ‘ 4: f AS atas aru tyra ip ok rey een way aes + Sarria ne ame i merrier eran a ear te oer e , sire tant ota oF er oe sha tes oy, Casall deere ay i oats ‘ west ale a aid bean Prarie Wee ey F : ds Wie Ase Bi ah beet > fans bere merit 4 : Se WA ry orrme we aiiee edged ty) «het oo 4 ttle ye Pere: Haan 4A.) wee Seay ee eth ete OTL pode ae Cu aed Perce ee renee ae es ‘ Leonie eae ae oo byl saare asi ren ee f ‘ew Ge Set h Index and Comtemis, | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Be LATE a3" : LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. Wew ¥ork: ~ PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 1883. GREGORY Bros., PrRiIntERS, 34 CARMINE STREET, N.Y. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 1882. President. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. ! VYice-Presidents. BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULMEN: Goyyesponding Secretary. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secretary. OLIVER P. HUBBARD. @reasuyey JOHN H. HINTON. Joibvarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. Gommittee of Publication. DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. GHO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS. W. P. TROWBRIDGE. ANNALS OF THE ANNALS NEW. YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, LATE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. VOLUME II. ys (a™ hie % P27 2652 0) ew York; PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 1882. GREGORY BROS., Printers, 34 Carmine Street, NEW YORK. (FFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 1982, resident. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. Yice-Presidents. BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULIEN. @onyesponding Secretary. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secretary, OLIVER P. HUBBARD. Greasurer JOHN H. HINTON. Joibvarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. Committee of Publication. DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS. W. P. TROWBRIDGE. CONTENTS OF VOL. U. BY THOMAS BLAND. PAGE. Description of a New Species of Triodopsis from New Mexico........ 115 On the Relations of the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz, West Indies. 117 Notes on Macroceramus Kieneri, Pfr. and M. poniificus. Gould......... 127 Description of two New Species of Zonites from Tennessee.......... 368 BY H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, Application of Organic Acids to the Examination of Minerals..... nid il BY N. L. BRITTON. On the Geology of Richmond County, New York, (with Plates XV AGEL NTA ig aU re ea ee eT eae ee SOR eceae 161 BY P. T. CLEVE. Outlines of the Geology of the North-Eastern West India islands. i AVAL! PU tte, DRONA UN a a care sre Pat a wl nS urna a Re 185 BY THOMAS EGLESTON. On Zinc Desilverization, (with Plates III to XIII,.................. 81 x Contents. BY ARTHUR M. ELLIOTT, An Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis, (with Plates XXII and O00 a ere aN RRR Coc o¢ coco cous BY LAURENCE JOHNSON, The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York, (with Plate XVIII). BY GEORGE N, LAWRENCE, Description of a New Species of Bird of the Genus Chetura, with Notes on two other little-known Birds....................... Description of two New Species of Birds from Yucatan, of the Fami- hes Columbidze and Formicarida:. >.>. 2.25.2 4s. eee eee Description of a New Species of Bird of the Family Cypselide....... Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Genera Chrysotis, Formi- civands and Spermopnildis .a-0se < se ee eee BY ALBERT KR. LEEDS. On the Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen, as well as of Ozone, by the Action of Moist Phosphorus upon Air (with PlateI’....... BY JOHN 8, NEWBERRY. The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals................... On the Origin of the Carbonaceous Matter present in Bituminous Shales, Oe me (a) whe ie a 6 eae ©) 0i se. 8 lev ism 0:6 10) © 6,0 \e 0) (0) a 0) 6 01s) 6) le) oie) tufiallinliciiiatic i omeneynel BY JOHN K. REES. Observations on the Transit of Venus, December, 1882 BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. The Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey (with Plate II} 872 vw (eS) 267 do7 384 “te Contents. X] BY ROBERT E. C. STEAKNS. On Helix aspersa in California, and the Geographical Distribution of certain West American Land-Snails, and previous errors re- Den CRHET CLO! ctecicl- focecetaa su aslecies so EG RAS Poe SENSE RES. AE 129 BY ROBERT i. THURSTON, The place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics............... 19 Note relating to a newly discovered Absolute Limit to Economical Ex- FO MMMM EN MOVES dave 2's ss sia vi cinlysueartom whe s/s eRe eo 300 BY EDWARD VON MARTENS. Description of two Species of Land-Shells from Porto Rico.......... 570 BY W. WALTER WEBB. Index to the Literature of Electrolysis (1784 to 1880)................. 313 BY R. P. WHITFIELD. Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from Ohio, with Remarks on some of the Geological Formations in which they occur........ 193 BY F. G. WIECHUMANN. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites (with Plates XIX, XX, and XNXI).... 289 BY HENRY 8. WILLIAMS. The Life-History of Spirifer levis, Hall;a Paleontological Study (with TEU, RII Seta idia sete poke merge fie oon een oy ape Errors Diner eacreae 140 LIST OF PLATES, VOlLe te Puate. I. Apparatus to show the presence, and comparative amounts, of Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide in air that has been passed over moist phosphorus. Art. II, pp. 22—27. PLATE II. Generalized section of the rocks of Hudson County, New Jersey. Art. IV, pp. 27—72. Puate III. The figures on Plates III to XIII inclusive, relate to Art. V, pp. St—113. Fig. 1. Ore-sampler at Wyandotte Works. 2. Slag-buggy at Cheltenham Works. PuLatTe LY. Fig. 3. Blast-furnace at the Pennsylvania Lead Company’s Works, Mansfield Valley, Penn. — PLATE V. Fig. 4. Desilverization-kettles at the Germania Works, Utah. List of Plates. xu Puate VI. Fig. 5. Lead-refining furnace at the Germania Works, Utah. Puate VIL. Fig. 6. Steitz’s siphon-tap, for the polling-pots. 7. Polling--rutch, or wood-holder, for the polling-pot. Puiate VIII. Fig. 8. Brodie’s distillation furnace. PLATE IX. Fig. 9. Furnace at Cheltenham, Missouri. 10. Steitz’s siphon-tap for the distillation-furnace. PLATE X. Fig. 11. Improved retort-furnace (‘‘tilting-furnace”) by Faber du Faur, C. E. PuatTe XI. Fig. 12. Details of Faber du Faur’s furnace. PuLaTE XII. Fig. 13. Furnace planned by Faber du Faur for the Germania Works, Utah. PuatTe XIII. Fig. 14. Larger tilting furnace, for flame or gas, by Faber du Faur. PuLatTE XIV. Relations of Spirifer levis, Hall, to other species of the genus. Art. X, pp. 140—161. XIV List of Plates. Fig. 1. Spirifer laevis, Hall, ventral valve, showing surface marking. The same, showing hinge-area, beak, and deltidium, — and (b) dorsal valve. 3. 3. fimbrialus. Conrad; ventral valve. 4. The same, showing beak and area, and (b> dorsal valve. ». § levis, H., side view. 6. 8S. fimbrialus, C., cardinal view. 7. The same, side view. 8, 9,10. 8S. erispus, Hisinger; ventral, dorsal, and side views (after Hall). 11, a, b. The same, narrow variety. 12, a, b. 8. bicostatus, Vanuxem (after Hall). 3, a, b. 3S. erispus, His., wide variety. Prate XV. Geological map of Richmond Co., New York, (Staten Island). Art. XI, pp. 161—182. PLATE XVI. Geological sections across Staten Island, N. Y. Same article. Puiate XVIL.- Geology of the North-eastern West India islands. Art. XII, pp. 185—193.. Fig. 1. Section through the Virgin Islands. 2. Sections through the Leeward Islands. Puare XVIII. Geological map of a part of Western New York. Art. XV, pp. 249—267. PLATE XIX. Magnified sections of meteorites. Art. XVIII, pp. 889—3812. Fig. 1. Weston, Conn.; fell 1807. 300 diameters. 2. Left upper part of Fig. 1. 1500 He 3, 4, 5. Same meteorite. 300 * 6. North Carolina; fell 1849. 75 os 7, 8. Same meteorite. 300 s 9, Charles Co., Md. ; fell 1825. — 800 ine List of Plates. Sey) PLATE XX. Maenified sections of meteorites. Same article. Fig. 1. New Concord, Ohio; fell 1860. 800 diameters. 2. Staunern, Moravia; «< 1808. 300 fs 3. Siebenbiirgen; ** 1852. 150 ss 4, Weston, Conn. ; ** 1807. 150 se 5. Chateau Renard, France; ‘‘ 1841. 600 se 6. Iowa Co., lowa; “« 1875. 300 te 7. Aigle, France (crust); ** 1808. 300 oe 8. Same meteorite (interior); 300 re 9. see st (both) ; 300 oe PuatTe XXII. Magnified sections of igneous rocks. Same article. Fig. 1. Scoria, Sandwich Islands. 300 diameters. 2. Basalt, Washoe. at sc 3. Rhyolyte, River Range, Nevada. i 4. lava, Vesuvius. te ie 5. ‘Tufaceous trachyte, Colorado River. ss i PLrate XXII. Elliott’s absorption-apparatus for rapid analysis of gases. Art. XXIV, pp. 3872—380. PLATE XXIII. Elliott’s explosion-burette, for gas-analysis. Same article. l and 2. | | | T. EGLESTON. BENJ. N. MARTIN. © OLIVER P. HUBBARD. Hf : {| Pe 1} ™ vat at } | 1] 1 | || Bl } | Tt bl } | 1 | 1] | | President. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. Vice-}residents. @onyesponding Secretany. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secretary, Greasurey JOHN H. HINTON. Soibrarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. @ommittee of Publication. || DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. || GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS. W. P. TROWBRIDGE. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOLUME II. I1.—Application of Organic Acids to the Examination of Minerals. [Second Paper. | BY H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, PH. D. Read January 5th, 1880. 26. The behavior of minerals with organic acids has already formed the subject-matter of two papers read before the Academy in 1877 and 1878, and we now present the results of a continua- tion of our researches. In our first paper* we described several new methods of attack- ing minerals, and their application to ninety-five specimens; in the following pages we extend the investigation to one hundred and six additional minerals. These methods of decomposition were as follows :— Ist. Treatment with a cold saturated solution of citric acid. 2d. Treatment with a boiling solution of the same. 3d. Heating with a saturated solution of citric acid to which sodium nitrate is added. 4th. Heating with a saturated solution of citric acid to which ammonium fluoride is added. And in a second paper, under another title,t we added a fifth reaction :— dth. Heating with a concentrated solution of citric acid to which potassium iodide is added. * Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. I, p. 1. {+ Behavior of Natural Sulphides with Iodine and other Reagents. Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. I, p. 153. 2 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. Similar reactions with oxalic, tartaric, acetic, and other or- ganic acids, were described in the first paper, but preference is given to citric acid on account of its greater solvent power. Minerals belonging to several groups were submitted to these processes, and gave phenomena which may be summarized as follows : 1st. More or less complete decomposition and solution of oxides, phosphates, etc., without formation of precipi- tates or liberation of gases. 2d. Complete solution of carbonates with evolution of car- bonic anhydride. 3d. Decomposition of sulphides with evolution of sulphuret- ted hydrogen. 4th. Decomposition of sulphides with oxidation of the sul- phur. 5th. More or less perfect decomposition of silicates with separation of either slimy or gelatinous silica. 6th. Decomposition of certain species by reagents forming characteristic precipitates. 7th. Wholly negative action. These facts demonstrated that citric acid has a power of de- composing minerals little less than that possessed by hydro- chloric acid, and that this very difference in degree gives the organic acid an advantage over the mineral acid in the determi- nation of species. 27. This peculiar selective power of citric acid rendered de- sirable a further study of its action on a larger number of mine- rals ; the following list contains the names of the species which have since been submitted to the process named, together with their formule, condition, and locality. Within the groups,—I, Sulphides, Arsenides, Tellurides, etc., —II, Oxides,—III, Silicates, and—IV, Sundries, the minerals are arranged in the order in which they are given in Dana’s System of Mineralogy. We desire to express our thanks to Prof. Thomas Egleston, — of the School of Mines, Columbia College, who has again placed us under obligations by supplying many of the rarer minerals. 7] of Minerals. von AMiUna ganic Acids in the Ex t Or THO UNIO) ‘Auoxeg ‘aropsunerg ~*~ “AUBULIOX) * ‘grays "°° “mepeadg ‘sioqevuny, Fess seh ess SATSSBOL ** “9ATSSBUL “***snorqy Eas pulp [eysh10 ** QATSSBUL “** pozVr[oz ‘Atoxeg ‘UunIqueyleig’* °° OAISSVUL Resrooeaine “> sures “gissnig ‘wes’: * °° dono “speysf10 “eq “OD Jeysvouvy*- ‘Zep ‘yeqysne[p** [OD ‘replynog teeeee ss ounpaysdro yaio-8 AOU “BUTISNAOUL ‘OOIxXoW em eceralee Cio Os050, CuGeO aU [eISA.10 ‘ZV ‘OpOLOA[TLT, ‘v's ‘TmmO°"* ‘109 ‘yoorp, n>) (@ ene ve ‘Avesunyy *** ‘Arvesuny *** ‘AON “Sproqumnyy ** ‘ALITVOOT Pee ee sess ss QAISS BU ss eeess ozarenh Ur SEGUE ey EEE) Hyon aMaltereiele “eUuTT[RISAIO stresses: QATSSRUL *"NOILdIYOSHd &g *sy + § SV § "gs *qg + 8 BV e fg tqg + 9 (em ‘dd)z "§ "QS + 9 OL ‘Sng (g ‘a9 ‘@L) ¢ + (my ‘Gd) 2 “SV OF “SV ‘§) 00 ‘S00 +8006 S IN ag SH OL SV g Ut °$ Ad ’sy ‘NB ®S “1G &S Sy S 8V ®S ‘VIOWOT OLA ‘SHMINASUV ‘SHAIHdIOS TI ee peeeees oqrasnold seeceees scour kSrerkg srersee sss onnrosourer Saco eit ** aqLrelqyed DE BRO DOU TU aii hig) Mo}9) tesseeee es -oBekSenr sees e+ oatrkdooney SOOO OOIOO N= 1c cio [ol@) PPG G GEO OO ye oioKT| Preah so 9 * SATIOTIN Fe seee sss -oTMBUrOLy, terres see ess -oqigseRy Freee ee ess ouIpURqeLy *-aqTeqysne[p vesesses s+ gate Kamo] sees s* QUTTIqNUUST” eee aS *- ++ gueutrtdi9 nSeearete ee res[voy se eeeeees ss ssmmyding “IVSANITA tion of Minerals. LAMAN + a Organic Acids in the E 4 “CUlpOItD YON ***°* °° ‘snoydioure “ed 1oqeET" teeeee se -onitpeys{1o “eBay °° 8+ ourypeyshr0 "eg ‘YOR tres tt tts speyshr0 "pULLSU ‘[[VMUIOD* °° 8+ +s STeqysh10 yigerg ot ttt tt etc “+s7eys kro "PON ‘Uppmerge oes gpeysiro ‘MUON ‘pleumow ot speyshzo ‘eISSN “SPP TOUT’ "°° speyshro “eUT[OIVD Y}ION °° "°° ** OAISSBUT ‘OTT ‘S "TT ‘loquepy teddog:+*"****+*:>>-*-aatsseur ALITVOO'TD “NOILdIVOSaG IS TH 1 UW "UWS LD ug veo dd LY oN *O %(0a “LL) 0) a) *0 “IV 019 VIOANUOW si G(CHOSO) Ut “AUOXLY ‘Lopsunvag’ ***** °°" ++ * ouT[TEysAr0 ‘OpB10[OH, “Oop Id] Ly eee ee ree er ee fo QATSSBUL Heeeere reese gargseut “OoIXey ’ wees ee ee *' > -QATSSBUL ‘purpeng” [peamtog’-- °°: * + 9UuT[[VSA10 Soon dn dnos oN ** sarsseut ‘Oqs + "848% “Ss ‘sy + 9n9 6 8g @(sy ‘qg) + ¢ (29 By) 6 'g “ag +9 SV G *S Ssy + 9 (Og ND) F ‘3 “a9 +98 4a ¢ elrheajel=iaiteiens * eyruTumns) SPST 200 2 eniaplarory) cesses ress oer eee ae “o oUgnyy soso seee+ -gatroqisseg Die ee Taq Os AUG) retteeesess sss romidg 77555" -9qTTO]SUTYSe AN pena ee POS 22 ODO eV FT DEITY) "= +5" * OUIMODBIOTA “IVIONI]L 8}ISOULIO yp wihes! Feces : a}ISIVUT Gino haute ayiseq.jog Mic eit e}Iuvydeyg “costes satu g, ce ** 9} Llasuupnog Ned ‘SI ZUR tt earsseur "1g (482 ++ oat) see ee renee ees > OTBATT ‘ssupy ‘ABMTIOQ* Tt T tt tt OATSSBUT 1g “(4-8 + ep t) SOOT) (07 "eIUISItA ***posoduooep Ayeyavd =X ‘PC ‘eT 0 ‘UI ‘od “EV IS ee a ae = en Meet < “eIAWpJOP' ttt 'speysAro es ang Gar aL oye) eos OR COR O}IMVIANSO A S ‘uuyporeg WyTON ttt speysdro 1g 17 Sirsa ermaene TOOIIZ, S “KN YSmorogsyM ttt speyshz0 1g (464 aL. ea f) ieee **-9yrmoydopop = eNO TOP PPAR OED G speysfr0 aS *( AE + “(aT ‘ou ‘89 ‘SIN) &) seen eee see9s+odomkg = ‘pon Cuypyuenge sss 7 veatssuuT iS caWees © gees -->** eirory day, S qawag? + espeyshto “dstvery "Ig (Fe aE rag?) SooU po e0.00 00 +++ 1Kr0g ‘S eee gnoaqy Sys £byz 19) (QE *a) Shears "75" 7 snqysoqsy : Be OG ae tats rR ee a ee ene FA KM euMIg?e ttt veatsseur a is) GE Oy) SON ee Sa apIsVsled = ‘MepeMg? ttt) tt aATSSBUE ide tig Gpe-t tye) reese: oqaqeg 3 Foe Leen eee ee eae ose ee ee 2 Fa een ee oer te ais Veo eae x ‘KLITVOO'T . “NOMdIMOSa(T ‘VINNUOT TIVUGNIY S ‘SHLVOIIIS “HI SS) ‘VIMEO ‘Tos}1@ A" eee eset ose “ATeT[IMUTe UL ‘be + 1g eee eet e ee se ogres umOD 7 speqsAro 19 eee ee eee ete zyrent) tion of Minerals. amind c Acids in the Ex Jan Or “eUl[OIeD WIION** ‘ -ogisn[epuy Pe sieiseirie GSU TOOSITO Sarre an ayIyouy be eeeceeeeess oaronary treee- > + rnzey stdey PRR ACEO ceoeces ey1jeqde SE Pee * eytjoprideT Piecenhier sn herons oytdosojyg eA Sida ies ee OTT OT a tion of Minerals. UOINENaA Organic Acids in the EL. ‘puvpsag ‘[yeautop’ °° * ++" * *-eurp]eysAr0 Hl + *H 2+ SV 28 ‘yay “0p Atewmosjuoyy: "°c OTT] [VISA1O H ‘d Fe ‘qeig ‘stjodoteddop: **** * *xrvpnues13-aAtssvur HE +4 *n9 ‘purfsag ‘[[Vaulog’ °° °****---~‘eurt[eysha0 Hu) + Ga ‘sy) 0) ‘purpsug ‘[[eausop'********** *ouppeysAr0 H +4 m9 ‘e0uBIy ‘Sadoulryg’*******"°***** eAIsseuUr ld W a8 re is HEN ‘moyen: ssc eatsseur a 1 uy ea) ‘eluayog "ttt 8's greyshz0 10 ad al. sv qd & “mUO0p ‘UleppeRy’***°* "°° °° * ‘outpeysh10 (Bq q9) (ayy 2) Mg? ttt tees zeus Hioto +H 19 ¢ “KLITYOO'T ‘NOILdIMOSaC, ‘VIOMEO 7 SIVYUANIW AUUNODS “AI T oS ‘Oyen ** Phatotniietiotel stenicite " QATSSUUL He + "Ig “pgs + £ (sq aq) ¥) Sse tone MONG es oe "+ ourypuysh19 He + 19 (pvt + *0a 51) §) Bara ‘TaysayQ IAAL 8 StOBDVOTUT HE + Ig + neta -+ "4) “KX ON “09 s0tleImMeyT JQ -* sete ss gATSSUUL H ‘ON ne) ‘SW ‘OE VTS ‘PUL[s[ W97yeIg “ep[Iassoy’**- pees yuopnaeaqnd HG + "IS **** oiLIopIsoovUlAeyd sae “+++ oTTPOAtAL “+ "+> oyItpoupeuopnesg, CEMENT CVNG 6) Fees s sss -gamaqyeqry panne 5 889 oemmqii pbe.d ao nis eq Aydray, ste eee e eee hh okehecag ny DOD DoT sao aytqumyjoo fee eeeer sss onrmmuoRyy “IVAANI PY yr ses: -arTTOSEyy erelelinvelareuensiteut oqISTIezyer? eee ony SOS IG) terete moey inerals. if lon O sin the Examinati ganie Acid. re O ‘OLE YT “sp uenmorg +s tt: ‘setoeds XIS SING senor ere “OUT [VISAIO "A 'N ‘e8oxopmoory,* **+++ + +++ +-- -pazeroy ‘Auwuntayy: 686 +88 ss searsseur nee oye OSD S Taal jg) “TIITO see eee e seee “auT[]BySAIO “Aresunyy °° °° 7° ***-9ur[[VysArO ‘OTequialmIng’** 77 t 7 ttt: * syeysfi0 “+ -s7eqyskio ot “Nh QULog IVI see eee ee see . SATSSVUL RVITIULIVS ‘SOLTN* eee eee ees see e *s]vqsAro “IMO” ‘pyeauntgz: ~~ ***** ++ ***--sTeyskr0 “AON, “09 aAN eee eee ee ww ee OATSSVUL “VIULET OG, ‘pleuuniz see tee ee we eee “ SAISSVUL “MOSOIO et eee eee eee. we *Ayypeyo ‘BpVASN "°° °°“ SnoIqy aejnpou “QOUVILT THINyY ” ee he ee ee we eee ee S[e}sA.10 TRE TMg WpATayg) © 9 FO FOIE sob on spe}sAr9 pue peipuny suo 9% @) ste 5H H19 1% + 819 1) 4d Sa OW 4d AM) A TIN Ad (CIM 2) HSNe Hon a H ‘Ht “tN ‘vo ‘a ‘Ig HAtHu+d'2 seresesess IMOSsBlYy COS SOR OSSS Grhnu (eters) Poesy, ereuexemkeses "> “KIMo1ETT sos gr TeyOOIg Repel ane “O}LOD0ID, Polen cae eyIpAWUy tenes eeeses oungarag eceeoee hoses: outs ald waslolere ee ore eee ee eae “* “9qrpeeqag See es “++ 9qTeuqn yy OLULVAFTO AA eretoust aqiydtourojd «19, SHeS20) ">" oqtungny ee eeseseee ‘a}IUIEqIOJ, t 5 ( 5 o Reais as Organic Acids in the Bxamination of Minerals. q 28. The minerals of the foregoing list were submitted to the action of the following reagents successively: (1) A solution of citric acid saturated at the temperature of the laboratory, say 6d- to 70° Fahrenheit; this we call simply ‘‘citric acid.” (2) The same solution to which solid sodium (or potassium) nitrate is added, which for convenience we shall call the ‘‘ nitro- citric mixture” (3) The same solution to which solid potas- sium iodide is added at the time of testing, and which for sim- plicity we shall designate as the ‘‘iodo-citric mixture.” The action of these reagents was studied in the simple manner detailed in our first paper. The mineral to be examined was carefully freed from its associated gangue and finely pul- yerized in an agate mortar; a portion was placed in a test-tube, the solution of the acid was added, and the resulting phenomena, in the cold, and on boiling, carefully noted. In many instances the partial decomposition of the mineral was ascertained by filter- ing from the residue, and testing the solution with an appyro- priate reagent; or by examining the disengaged gas with a suit- able test-paper. SULPHIDES, ARSENIDES, ETC. 29. Minerals of this group treated with citric acid alone, yielded results as follows : (a) Clausthalite and leucopyrite dissolve in the cold with- out liberation of gas. (0) Alabandite is very strongly attacked in the cold, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. On applying heat it is wholly soluble. In this respect alabandite appears to be the most easily decomposed of all the sulphides yet examined, 37 in number. (c) Boulangerite, jamesonite, and kermesite are more or less attacked by boiling citric acid, yielding sulphuret- ted hydrogen. The remaining minerals of this group resist the action of cold or hot citric acid. Sulphur is absolutely unattacked even when the citric acid solu- tion is heated to the melting point of the element. The powerful solvent action of a mixture of citric acid and sodium nitrate was discussed in our first paper (19), here we 10 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. need only add that the intensity of action claimed for it is fully maintained by later researches. (d) All the minerals of the first group, 25 in number, with three exceptions, dissolve in the nitro-citric mixture rapidly and completely, several of them yielding solu- tions of characteristic color. Even sulphur itself is decidedly attacked, with formation of sulphuric acid. The exceptions are realgar, orpiment, and proustite. (e) Two of these, realgar and orpiment, are partially de- composed by boiling with the iodo-citric mixture. Proustite and sulphur resist even on prolonged heating. All the remaining minerals of this group are quite readily dissolved, the decomposition of the sulphides being accompanied by liberation of sulphuretted hy- drogen. The differentiating power of these solvents is again exhibited by these reactions. In our first paper we showed, that while | bornite and pyrrhotite are decomposed by citric acid, their kin- dred compounds, chalcopyrite and pyrite, are not (13). We now find that proustite resists completely the decomposing solu- tions named, while pyrargyrite is decidedly attacked by the nitro-citric mixture as well as by the iodo-citrie mixture, even in the cold. This difference in behavior of the two closely allied minerals was established by numerous determinations. OXIDES. 30. The oxides examined include such stable minerals as co- rundum, spinel, chrysoberyl, cassiterite, rutile, hyalite, and quartz, which naturally resist these methods of attack. Gummite is attacked by cold citric acid, and melaconite and goethite are soluble to a certain extent on heating. Menaccanite and washingtonite are feebly attacked by the nitro-citric mixture and strongly by the iodo-citric solution. This latter also strongly attacks braunite and goethite. Organie Acids in the Examination of Minerals. 11 SILICATES. 31. Silicates are very unequally attacked by citric acid as well as by mineral acids. (a) Nephelite, lapis lazuli, laumontite, herschelite, thom- sonite, mesolite, and prochlorite, are decomposed by citric acid in the cold, a portion of them with forma- tion of a jelly. Tephroite, ilvaite, gieseckite, jefferisite, heulandite, and genthite, are strongly attacked on boiling with the citric acid alone. Pargasite, }»yrope, almandite, colophonite, phlogopite, bastite, masonite, and allanite (?), are feebly attacked. Some doubt obtains, however, as to the last named, because the specimens examined were partially decomposed on the surface. (6) The addition of sodium nitrate to the solution of citric acid does not notably increase its solvent power as re- spects silicates, but the addition of potassium iodide aids decidedly in effecting their decomposition. The iodo-citric mixture strongly attacks the garnets named, as well as enstatite, hypersthene, pargasite, epidote, and those named in paragraph 32. The feldspars resist these reagents, yet orthoclase and labra- dorite give up iron to them. Petalite, actinolite, asbestus, beryl, zircon, vesuvianite, zoisite, iolite, lepidolite, leucite, an- dalusite, fibrolite, topaz, titanite, staurolite, and kaolin, either wholly resist or give to the attacking solution only a trace of iron. } The variety of serpentine known as bowenite resists citric acid, while serpentine itself, of a normal character, is decom- posed. On the whole, citric acid attacks the silicates with a power nearly approaching that of hydrochloric acid. REVISION OF THE SILICATES. 32. While carrying on these researches we were continually compelled to combat the firmly grounded impression that the organic acids are weak as respects mineral species. In conse- 12 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. quence of this pre-conceived notion, we overlooked in our first paper the fact, that the decomposition of many silicates takes place at ordinary temperatures, having in fact applied heat at once when conducting the examination. A closer investigation, however, shows that a saturated solu- tion of citric acid is able to decompose many silicates in the cold, even to the formation of gelatinous silica. This necessitated a revision of the silicates named in our first paper (16), with the following results :— (a) Willemite, pectolite, calamine, natrolite, wollastonite, chrysolite, chondrodite, chrysocolla, apophyllite, rho- donite, analcite, chabazite, stilbite, and deweylite, are more or less strongly attacked by cold citric acid,—the first four yielding a jelly. Datolite, prehnite, serpentine, chrysotile, and retinalite, are attacked on boiling the solution. (6) The use of the iodo-citric solution as a solvent haying been discovered subsequent to the examination of the silicates named in our first paper, a further revision of this group became necessary. The results are briefly as follows :— Olivine, augite, almandite, and epidote, heated with the iodo-citric mixture, are strongly attacked. Orthoclase, labradorite, hornblende, and spodumene, are very feebly attacked, or yield only iron to the solution. Wernerite, albite, diopside, kyanite, tale, muscovite, bio- tite, ripidolite, and tourmaline, are not attacked. These changes do not invalidate the accuracy of our published results, and are introduced simply to explain the change in position of these minerals in the Tables at the close of this paper. SuNDRY MINERALS. 33. Under this head are grouped phosphates, arseniates, tung- states, sulphates, etc., as stated in the list given in (27). A large number, chiefly phosphates, dissolve easily in a cold solution of citric acid ; these embrace the following :— Mimetite, triphylite, triplite, libethenite, olivenite, ataca- Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. 13 mite, pseudomalachite, wavellite, pharmacosiderite, tor- bernite, autunite, ulexite, cryptomorphite, and broch- antite. Wulfenite and crocoite are strongly attacked on boiling, the latter yielding a green solution, owing to the reducing action of the organic acid on the chromic acid. Columbite and wolframite are attacked by the iodo-citric mixture, at least so far as partially to dissolve the iron which forms one of their constituents. Hibnerite is attacked by the nitro-citric mixture; while scheel- ite, barite, celestite, anhydrite, and graphite, resist completely these methods of attack. Native Hlements.—In our first paper we called attention to the solvent power of the nitro-citric mixture, as shown by the fact that it dissolves metallic copper, silver, lead, tin, bismuth, and antimony, besides iron, zinc, and magnesium, (20); to this list we now add arsenicum and mercury. TABULATION OF RESULTS. 34. In paragraph (22) we gave a table showing the behavior of ninety minerals with citric acid and other reagents, arranged under eleven heads, viz. :— A. Minerals which dissolve in cold citric acid without evo- lution of gas. B. Minerals which dissolve in cold citric acid with libera- tion of carbonic anhydride. C. Minerals which are decomposed by cold citric acid with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. D. Minerals which dissolve in hot citric acid withont evo- lution of gas. Ff. Minerals which dissolve in hot citric acid with liberation of carbonic anhydride. F. Minerals which are decomposed by hot citric acid with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. G. Minerals which are decomposed by hot citric acid with formation of gelatinous silica. H. Minerals which are decomposed by hot citric acid with separation of slimy silica. 14 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. I. Minerals decomyosed by boiling with citric acid and sodium nitrate. K. Minerals decomposed by heating with citrie acid and ammonium fluoride. L. Minerals which are not attacked by any of these methods. To this we added, in a subsequent paper, a twelfth group, V1Z. :— M. Minerals decomposed by heating with citric acid and potassium iodide. In the Tables accompanying this paper we have combined, on a similar plan, the results obtained in the present and previous communications, thus giving a comprehensive view of the be- havior of two hundred minerals with citric acid. The arrange- ment differs somewhat from the foregoing ; we have re-adjusted the silicates to accord with facts stated in (82), and we have omitted the reaction with ammonium fluoride as of no import- ance in determining species. To ascertain the exact position for each mineral has been no trivial task ; and should errors be discovered, we crave indulg- ence, and beg our friends to remember the French saying: ““ Ceux qui ne se trompent jamais sont ceux qui ne font rin.” SUMMARY. 35. The number of minerals examined, though considerable, if we regard the labor involved, is but small compared with those which remain to be treated by these methods, and any attempt at generalization must be correspondingly weak. It may, however, be admissible to study the Tables with a view to determining whether there is any relation, peculiar to the organic acid, between its solvent power and the chemical consti- tution of the minerals. This question may be considered from two standpoints, corresponding to two methods of classifying minerals, vyiz., with reference to their acidic and to their basic constituents. (a.) The first method of grouping the minerals is the same as that of the list given (27) ; the question applied to them may be answered thus :— ee Se eee ee Organic Acids in the Beamination of Minerals. 15 All carbonates and phosphates are decomposed by citric acid. The sulphides are very unequally attacked ;—two resist the solvents, three yield only to the iodo-citric mixture, twenty-two only to the nitro-citric mixture, and ten ure attacked by the acid alone. The oxides and anhy- drous silicates are very unequally attacked. The hydrous silicates are (with one or two exceptions) de- composed by citric acid alone. (o.) An examination of the influence of the basic constituents on the solubility discloses the following points. All the copper minerals are soluble in one or more of the solvents. All the manganese minerals are decomposed,—the sulphide and the silicates with great facility. al the lead minerals are decomposed by citric acid alone. In some cases the presence of lead would seem to ren- der a mineral easily broken up; this is marked in the case of the sulphides, which, as we have seen, are very , unequally attacked ;—thus selenide of lead is attacked and selenide of mercury is not; sulphide of lead is attacked, while sulphide of silver is not. ‘The minerals jamesonite, bournonite, and boulangerite (containing lead) are attacked, while the closely allied species ste- phanite, tennantite, polybasite, proustite, berthierite, etc. (devoid of lead) are not decomposed. These facts may possibly point to a connection between chemical constitution and solubility, peculiar to the reagent employed ; but we offer the suggestion with diffidence, owing to the limited number of facts on which to base generalizations. Moreover we find that the results obtained by the prolonged action of citric acid on minerals (10 to 30 days), differ greatly from those here recorded. ‘To this we shall return at a subsequent period. In conclusion, we beg leave to remind our readers that the ~immediate object in view, as was stated at lengtli in our first paper, is the practical application of these methods to the ex- amination of minerals in the field. Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. 16 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. Tables showing the Behavior of certain Minerals with Citric Acid, alone and with Reagents. I. DECOMPOSED (IN FINE POWDER) BY A SATURATED SOLUTION OF Cirric ACID. 1.—IN THE COLD. A. B. C. D. Without evolution | With liberation With liberation | With separation of Gas. of COs. | of Ha. of SiOsae Clausthalite, Calcite, ! Stibnite, W ollastonite, Leucopyrite, Dolomite,* Galenite, Rhodonite, ! Atacamite, Gurhofite, ! Alabandite, Chrysolite, - Brucite, Ankerite,* Sphalerite, Willemite, !t Gumumite, Rhodochrosite,* | Pyrrhotite. Nephelite, Pyromorphite,* |Smithsonite,* Lapis lazuli, Mimetite, Aragonite, ! Chondrodite, Triphylite, Witherite, ! Pectolite, !} Triplite, Strontianite, ! Laumontite, !} Vivianite, ! Barytocalcite, ! Chrysocolla, ! Libethenite, ! Cerussite, ! Calamine, !} Olivenite, ! Malachite, ! Apophyllite, Pseudomalachite, | Azurite.* Thomsonite, ! W avellite, Natrolite, !t Pharmacosiderite ! Mesolite, ! Torbernite, Analcite, Autunite, Chabazite, Ulexite, ! Herschelite, t Cryptomorphite, ! Stilbite, Anglesite, Deweylite, Brochantite. ! Prochlorite. Organic Acids in the Hxamination of Minerals. 17 2.—ON BOILING. E. F. G. H. Without evolution With liberation With liberation With separation of Gas. of COr. of IS. of Si0.. » Cuprite, ! Hausmannite, + Bornite, Tephroite,t Zincite, Pyrolusite, !+ Jamesonite,* Ilvaite, Melaconite, Mangauite, | Bournonite, Phlogopite,* ee Goethite,* Psilomelane, !+ Boulangerite, Datolite, !t _ Limonite,* Wad, !+ Kermesite. Prehnite,* Allanite,(?) Magnesite, ! Heulandite, Apatite,* Siderite. ! Serpentine, W olframite,* Chrysotile, Wulfenite, Retinalite, Crocoite, Bastite, _ Gypsum. Genthite, 2 eal Gieseckite,* Jefferisite, Masonite. * and and and and those in A. those in B. those in C. those in D. 3 ne _ DeEcoMposED BY A BOILING SOLUTION OF CrTRic ACID, MIXED 1.—Wits Soprum NITRATE. K.—WitxH Porasstum IopIpDE. Silver, Mercury, _ Copper, Arsenic, - _ Antimony, Bismuth, ‘Sulphur,* _ Bismuthinite, ~ Domeykite, ! _ Argeantite, Hessite, ~ Chalcocite, ! _ TTiemannite, ! — Millerite, ! Niccolite, ! | Pyrite, ! _ Chalcopyrite, ! - Linnacite, Smaltite, ! Cobaltite, ! Ulimannite, ! Marcasite, ! Arsenopyrite, ! Nagyagite, Covellite, ! Berthierite, ! Pyrargyrite, Tetrahedrite, ! Tennantite, ! Stephanite, Polybasite, ! Enargite, ! Uraninite, ! Hiibnerite. and those in Cand G. Almandite, Pyrope, Colophonite, Epidote. Realgar,* Orpiment,* Cinnabar, ! Hematite,* Menaccanite,* Washingtonite,* Magnetite,* Franklinite, Brauunite, Enstatite, Hypersthene, | Augite, Spodumene,* Hornblende,* Actinolite,* Pargasite,* Olivine, and most of those in A, b, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I. 18 Organic Acids in the Bxamination of Minerals. ee MINERALS NOT DECOMPOSED BY THE ABOVE REAGENTS. Graphite, lolite, Tale, Labradorite, Molybdenite, Biotite, Kaolin, Oligoclase, Proustite, Muscovite, Ripidolite, Albite, Fluorite, Lepidolite, Columbite, Orthoclase, Cryolite, Wernerite, Samarskite, Tourmaline, Corundum, Leucite, Spinel, Scheelite, Diopside, Andalusite, Chromite, Barite, Petalite, Fibrolite, Chrysoberyl, Celestite, Asbestus, Kyanite, Cassiterite, Anhydrite. Beryl, Topaz, Rutile, (Two hundred Zircon, Titanite, Quartz, species. ) Vesuvianite, Staurolite, Hyalite, Zoisite, Bowenite, Anorthite, N. B.—The gases evolved are examined with acetate the solutions with appropriate reagents. of lead test-paper The kind and degree of action are indicated in the above Tables by the following signs :— ' Completely decomposed or dissolved, * Feebly attacked. + The COyx evolved is derived from the Citric Acid. ¢t Gelatinizes. Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics. 19 IL—The Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics. BY PROF. R. H. THURSTON. Read April 5th. 1880. M. Ilirsch, in his Introduction to his translation of the writer’s History of the Steam Engine,* publishes a new fact relating to Carnot and the history of the mechanical theory of heat, as revealed in recently discovered documents, which had only come to his knowledge at the time of writing. The documents referred to, were presented to the President of the Academy of Sciences by M. H. Carnot, November 30th, 1878. They show clearly, that if the doctrine of the equiva- lence of heat and mechanical energy was not recognized by Sadi Carnot when, in 1824, he published his now celebrated work, ‘‘ Reflexions sur la Puissance Motive du Feu,” the idea of the identity of the two forms of energy soon did become recognized by him and observable in the course of his work. The following are extracts from the manuscript notes left by Carnot :— “Tua Chaleur n’est autre que la puissance motive, ou plutot, que le mouvement qui a changé de forme. C’est un mouvement dans les particules des corps. Partout ou il y a destruction de puissance motive, il y a, en méme temps, production de chaleur en quantité précisément proportionelle a la quantité de puissance motive détruite. Réciproquement, partout ou il y a destruction de chaleur, il y a production de puissance motive.” “On peut donc poser en thése générale que la puissance motive est en quantité invariable dans la nature, qu’elle n’est jamais, 4 proprement parler, détruite. A la vérité, elle change de forme, c’est-a-dire qu’elle produit tantot un genre de mouve- ment, tantot un antre; mais jamais elle n’est anéantie.” [| Heat is nothing else than motive power (energy), or rather, a motion which has changed its form. It is a motion of the molecules of bodies. Whenever motive power is destroyed, there is, at the same time, a production of heat in quantity precisely proportional to the quantity of power destroyed. Reciprocally, . * Histoire de la Machine a Vapeur, par R. H. Thurston, Prof. of Mechanical Engineering at the Stevens Institute cf Technology. Revised, annotated and enlarged by J. Hirsch, Prof. of the Steam Engine at “‘ Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées de Paris ;’—Vol. I, p. XV, foot note. 20 =Place of Sadt Carnot in the History of Thermotics. wherever there is’ destruction of heat, there is production of power of motion. We may then state as a general law, that energy is, in nature, invariable in amount; that is, is never, properly speaking, either created or destroyed. In fact, it changes form ; that is, it causes sometimes one kind of motion, sometimes another; but it is never destroyed. | Aguin : * *& * * D’aprés quelques idées que je me suis formé sur la’ theorie de la chaleur, la production d’une unité de puissance motive nécessite la destruction de 2.70 unites de la chaleur (chaque unité de puissance motive, ou dynamie, représentant le poids de 1 métre cube d’eau élevé a 1 métre de hauteur.” [* * * * According to my ideas of the theory of heat, the production of a unit of energy demands the destruction of 2.70 units of heat (each unit of energy, or dynamie, representing the raising of the weight of one cubic meter of water one meter high. | This estimate gives for the value of the ‘‘ mechanical equiva- lent of heat,” 3 = 370, roughly approximating 424, the metric equivalent of 772 foot-pounds, the British unit of heat-equiva- lence. 7 M. Hirsch remarks upon the precision with which Carnot states the law of equivalence of heat and work, as well as the more general law of the ‘‘conservation of energy.” ‘The con- siderations which lead him to this last-named law are of the extremest simplicity. Still more: Carnot lays out a complete programme of experi- ments on heat and energy—the very experiments since made by Joule, Thompson, Hirn, Regnault, and others. Hitherto, Carnot has been credited with the invention of the standard method of examination of the relations between heat and work, and it has been assumed that he was, to the last, a believer in the materiality of heat. His idea that we can only infer this relation after studying processes of such nature as present a complete cycle of changes resulting in the perfect restoration of the primitive physical conditions observed in the working substances, and his proposition that the reversible engine is the perfect engine, have admittedly formed the basis ea a tw Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics. ei of modern thermodynamic investigation. * Prof. Tait justly asserts* that, without this basis, the dynamical theory of heat could never have obtained, in so brief a period, the wonderful development witnessed during the past half-century. Carnot’s imperfect enunciation and demonstration of these points, re- mained unfruitful until, a quarter of a century later, Thompson and Rankine commenced their work in this field. The former then called attention to the work of Carnot,+ and adapted his conception to the dynamical theory and perfected the typical cycle. Carnot’s original work contains no evidence that he accepted the dynamical theory of heat, and it has only now become evi- dent that, if not then aware of the falsity of the material hypothesis, he soon became conscious of it, and fully accepted the true theory. ; His value (3870) for the dynamical equivalent, is not nearly as close an approximation as that obtained by earlier investigators. Rumford, especially, not only accepted, and in 1798 published in the Philosophical Transactions, a complete and definite state- ment of the equivalence of heat and work, but gave data, as shown by the writer,{ giving the value 783.8 foot-pounds, or within 1-5 per cent. of the now accepted value. This fact, however, while creditable to Rumford as the first correct ex- pounder and the experimental discoverer, does not detract from the honor due Carnot as the propounder of his method. It is certainly unfortunate that the manuscript notes left by Carnot could not have been published by him; and still more unfortunate is it that he had not earlier announced his belief and incorporated the dynamical theory of heat in his great work. His already great reputation, as it is, will be hightened by their tardy publication; but had he made the “ Reflexions” the vehicle of their presentation, Carnot would indisputably have earned the position, which is now sometimes denied him, of the founder of the modern science of heat-dynamics. * Recent Advances in Physical Science. + See Tait’s History of Thermodynamics :—also, Phil. Mag., 1872. t Trans. American Society of Civil Engineers, 1873. 22 The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen. III.— Upon the Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen, as well as of Ozone, by the action of moist Phosphorus upon Atr. BY ALBERT R. LEEDS. Read March 8th, 1680. In various preceding papers, and more especially in one enti- tled *‘Upon Ammonium Nitrite, and upon the By-products obtained in the Ozonation of Air by Moist Phosphorus,” (J. Am. Chem. Soce., I, p. 145; Ann. der Chem., CC, p. 286); I have strongly insisted upon the fact that Peroxide of Hydro- gen always accompanies the ozone generated by the aerial oxi- dation of phosphorus. Moreover, that the amount of peroxide of hydrogen, under definite circumstances of temperature, ex- posure of surface, etc., stands in a certain ratio to that of the ozone. So intimate appears to be the connection in the causes which invariably produce both bodies in this case, that any ex-— planation which aims to account for the production of ozone in the action of air upon moist phosphorus, and ignores the simul- taneous generation of peroxide of hydrogen, must of necessity be faulty. Without invalidating any of the experiments above alluded to, or the inductions therefrom, Mr. C. T. Kingzett has recently asserted* that there is no evidence whatsoever, that any ozone is produced during the slow oxidation of phosphorus. Further, that the body supposed in this instance to be ozone, is in reality only peroxide of hydrogen. ‘The same is true of Prof. McLeod, who followed the above with the contradiction, + that no peroxide of hydrogen is produced under these circumstances, but ozone only. An inspection of Prof. McLeod’s experiments, shows that they must have been open to some source of fatal error, because, instead of showing a progressively diminishing amount of ozone with the successive increments of temperature to which the stream of ozonized gas was subjected, they exhibit at 200° the largest proportionate yield of ozone. Had the experiments been correctly performed, they would have shown no ozone at 200°, ozone undergoing resolution into ordinary oxygen almost entirely and immediately (97 p. c. immediately) at this temperature. * Chem. News, XL, p. 96. + Chem. News, XL, p. 307. — > - j ’ —-— , st 2-2 e-em ee - —— Ty. ie The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen. 23 The purpose of the present article, is to demonstrate by a method entirely different from that which I have previously employed :— I. That doth hydrogen peroxide and ozone are generated by the action of air upon moist phosphorus. II. That in this highly dilute condition, they are not com- pletely destroyed, even after prolonged intermixture. IJ. When the current of ozonized air, containing hydrogen peroxide, is passed through a tube heated to various tempera- tures, the amount of water, obtained by the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide, zmcreases with the increment of temperature. IV. That, under these circumstances, the amount of ozone regularly diminishes. At 200°, no ozone reaction whatsoever is obtained. VY. That after this point has been attained, if a solution of potassium iodide (entirely free from iodate), which has previ- ously been acidified with sulphuric acid, be substituted for the neutral solution employed to titrate the ozone, it will undergo slow decomposition. This result is due not to ozone, which is completely destroyed by continued exposure to a temperature of 200,° but to the spontaneous decomposition of an acidified solu- tion of potassium iodide in presence of oxygen. The objects kept prominently in view, in devising the method of the experiment, were :— 1st. To bring filtered and purified air in contact with a large surface of phosphorus, the phosphorus being partly immersed in ‘distilled water quite free from ammoniacal and nitrous com- pounds, and maintained during the course of the experiment at the temperature of maximum eyolution of ozone (24°—25° C). 2d. To wash out of the ozonized air as large an amount of hydrogen peroxide as possible, by means of an extended series of wash-bottles. - 3d. To free the ozonized air, after its escape from the wash- bottles, from every trace of moisture. 4th. 'To decompose the hydrogen peroxide and ozone at gradu- ally increasing temperatures. 5th. To weigh any water, and to titrate any ozone, remaining after the ozonized air had been subjected to the action of heat. These views were embodied in the apparatus shown in Plate I. The air was filtered through a train of purifiers, of which A 24 The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen. contained absorbent cotton, Band C glass beads drenched with soda solution, D and # sulphuric acid beads. The air, after ozonation in the ‘* Phosphorus Ozonator,” was aspirated through Kerite tubing into the first wash-bottle, and thence into the four Geissler bulbs F, G, Hand J, the entire five containing water. From J, the gas passed through the empty wash-bottle J, thence into the sulphuric acid wash-bottle A, and finally through three drying-tubes, filled to a length of 24 meters with glass beads drenched with sulphuric acid. From the dryers, the ozonized air passed into a curved glass tube, 4, dipping down into an oil-bath JZ. ‘The middle portion of this tube, for a length of 0.25 meter, was filled with amian- thus which had previously been ignited. The object of this amianthus filling, was to cause the ozonized air to pass through a great extent of heated air passages. After this, followed a weighed sulphuric acid drying-tube P, a sulphuric acid guard- tube 7, and a Geissler bulb containing a neutral solution of potassium iodide W. Between P and S, an empty tube closed with corks at both ends was interposed, for convenience in slip-. ping out the drying-tube P. The following experiments were performed under as nearly as possible identical conditions. Twelve liters of ozonized air were drawn through the apparatus in each trial, at the rate of six liters per hour. The ozonator was maintained at the tempera- ture of 24° C. The increase in weight of the drying-tube P, corresponded to the water formed by decomposition of the hydro- gen peroxide when heated to the various temperatures indicated in the table. The amounts of iodine set free in the potassium iodide solution, are calculated into the corresponding amounts of ozone, according to the equations :— 2 KI + 0, + 2 HCl = 2 KCl + I, + H,0 + O, and 2 KIO, + 2 HCl= 2 KCl + I, + O, + H,0, each molecule of ozone corresponding to two atoms of iodine. A large number of trials were made in blank, the ozonator not being thrown into action, and when at last the adjustment was made so perfect that the drying-tube P did not alter in weight either at 20° or 200°, when 12 liters of air were aspirated through the apparatus, and the potassium iodide solution in W under- went no alteration under like circumstances, the experiments given below were performed. Se ey ee ee i : , . } ; ij ae al Te. 2. 2 - The Production of Percaide of Hydrogen. AO Table showing the effect of Temperature upon the Hydrogen Per- oxide and Ozone contained in Air ozonized by Phosphorus. Exp. TEMP. WATER. | H2Oz. | OZONE. ( I | 100° 0.0015 grm. 0.0028 grm. | not determ. 1st Series Il 50° 0.0010 ** 0.0019 << a | Ul 24° 0.0000 * 0.0000 <* « ( aN, | 200° 0.0010 * 0.0019 ae" | 0.000 grm. 2d Series; V | 200° ORO 0s dens O200205 5 0.000 a l Wako 1502 | 0.0002“ 0.0004 “« OQLOO Les VII | 100° 0.0015“ 0.0028 ‘“ 0.0013 <“ 3d Series; VIII 50° 0:0003> 6 0.0006 “ 0.0044 <* { ix] ate | 0.0000 « eon, | onsn : ( ee 2002 O001S | 0.0084 << 0.0000‘ 4thSeries; XI} 100° 0.0002 « 0.0004. OOO | EG 22 = 0.0000‘ 0.0000 ** 0.0051 =<“ | These experim ‘nts, it appears to us, conclusively establish the L 5) ’ truth of the first, second and fourth propositions. They show ‘that doth hydrogen peroxide and ozone are formed, and that on heating the ozonized air, the proportion of water thus formed regularly increases, while that of the ozone as regularly dimin- ishes, until at 200° all the hydrogen peroxide is converted into water, and all the ozone into ordinary oxygen. At the close of the twelfth experiment, the intermediate train of dryers, ete., was thrown out, and the Geissler bulb W, con- taming the potassium iodide solution, was connected directly with the first wash-bottle (that preceding #’). The same volume of ozonized air, at the same rate, being drawn over under these conditions, gave a result corresponding to 7.94 mgrms., instead of 5.1 mgrms., as in experiment XII. The difference of 2.84 mgrms., which is 36 p. c. of the amount of ozone originally evolyed, represents the loss due to the decomposition effected by the simultaneous presence of hydrogen peroxide. This establishes the second proposition, and shows not only that the hydrogen peroxide and ozone can cc-exist for a long 26 The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen. time in dilute condition without great loss of either,* but also that the amount of hydrogen peroxide in the ozonized gas, bears a not inconsiderable proportion to that of the ozone itself. In fact, neglecting for a moment the minute amounts of hydrogen peroxide that are held back by the wash-waters, the ratio of. the hydrogen peroxide to the ozone in the ozonized air exceeds one to three. The amounts of hydrogen peroxide held back by the wash- waters were as follows:—The bulb /, containing 47 ce of water, after evaporation to two-thirds its original volume, in order to expel any dissolved ozone, was found to contain 0.2 mgrm. U,0,. The bulb G, containing 26 cc. water, after beg simi- larly evaporated, gave a reaction corresponding to 0.08 mgrm. H,O,. The bulb 4, to 0.01 mgrm. H,0,. The fallme of am the amount of hydrogen peroxide contained in 4, in comparison with that in G, is perhaps greater than should be, for the reason that H and J were changed during the experiments, and a much smaller amount of ozonized air passed through them than through the two preceding bulbs. But the striking feature in the experiment is, that only 0.38 mgrm. H,O, in all was absorbed by the wash-waters, the remainder passing on in the stream of ozonized air. Finally, to determine the truth or falsity of proposition V :— That the air, after being deprived of its hydrogen peroxide and ozone, could bring about a decomposition of an acidified solution of potassium iodide,—the experiment was again repeated with the tube WV maintained at a temperature of 200°. It will be noted that in every preceding trial at this temperature, a neutral solution of iodide being used, no liberation of iodine occurred. But in this experiment, a decomposition took place correspond- ing to 0.2 mgrm. of ozone. ‘This experiment, therefore, proves that the oxygen contained in a current of air, from which every trace of hydrogen peroxide and ozone has been removed by strong heating, may produce apparently the ozone reaction, in case the potassium vodide solution used for titration has been acidified. * This point, in opposition to the statements of SchOnbein, has likewise been established by SchOne, Jour. fiir Prakt. Chem., LXXVI, p. 130, and Ann. der Chim., CXVI, p. 240. N. Y. Acap. oF SCIENCES. Vor. Wi Biel aS wea \ sf a EEX !) HAs Ks NT TOMEI S Sy = SS = = un= SU ee Pe ee Oe Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. a7 IV.—On the Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. Read April 19th, 1880. The eastern boundary of Hudson County is the middle of the Hudson River; at Bull’s Ferry the line leaves the river and bears northwest until Bellman’s Creek is reached, which it fol- lows to the Hackensack River; thence the latter stream is the boundary, to’'the mouth of Sawmill Creek, which comes in from the westward ; the boundary then follows Sawmill Creek to the point where that stream is crossed by the Belleville turnpike, which then becomes the boundary as far as the middle of the Passaic River; the line then follows the centre of that river to Newark Bay, and then through the centre of the bay to the Kall Von Kull, through which it passes and joins the east- ern boundary.* The area thus inclosed comprises about 51 square miles, of which 6.4 sq. m. are covered by water. The most prominent feature in the geology as well as in the geography of Hudson County, is the great ridge of trap-rock which traverses it from north to south, and forms the elevated portion known in ditferent parts of its course as Bergen Hill, Jersey City Hights, Hights of Weehawken, etc. This same ridge of trap continues northward, forming the bold, picturesque Palisades along the west bank of the Hudson; at Haverstraw, where an elevation of over a thousand feet is attained, the trap- ridge sweeps around sharply to the westward, forming the Hook Mountains, so well known to all who are familiar with the beauti- ful scenery of the Hudson. In order to understand the topography of the region we are studying, it is necessary to remember that this ridge, forming the back-bone of the county, is the outcropping edge of an im- mense irregular sheet of very hard crystalline rock, which dips * For more detailed information, consult Public Laws of N. J., 1840, p. 65. 28 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. westward at an angle of about fifteen degrees, thus giving the western side of the hill a drainage in that direction. On the west, the trap passes beneath the sand-dunes and swamp- deposits of the Newark meadows. ‘To the ‘eastward, this out- cropping sheet of rock presents a bold mural escarpment, fre- quently forming cliffs from one to two hundred feet in height. having usually a bank or talus at the base, composed of huge angular fragments of trap that have been broken from the face of the precipice, mingled. in some places with boulders. and boulder-clay that can only be referred to the glacial drift. The appearance presented by the outcropping edge of this trap- sheet to the eastward is typically shown in the Palisades. The relation that the trap bears to the softer sedimentary strata of Triassic age associated with it, is represented in the section across Hudson County accompanying this paper. On either side of the conspicuous hill of trap are beds of sandstone, slute and shale, all inclined to the north-westward at about the sume angles as the sheet of trap itself ; these sedimentary strata form the bed-rock along each side of the hill, and also of the greater portion of the country for twenty miles west of Hudson County. Besides the trap-rock, sandstones, slates, and shales already mentioned, there is an area of small extent, underlying the eastern portion of Jersey City, composed of very ancient crystal- line gneiss; northward of this, and resting upon it or inter- stratified with it, occurs a limited exposure of jasperoid-rock and serpentine, composing the hill at Hoboken known as Castle Point. In the section referred to above, it will be noticed that the older strata forming the rocky floor of the county, are overlaid by a sheet of material of a totally different nature, occurring both on the hill-tops and in the valleys. This covering of earth and stones, now forming the surface of the larger portion of our county, is glacial drift, and will be more fully described under ~ the head of surface geology. Along the western side of Bergen Hill, this covering of su- perficial material is overlaid in turn by the sand-dunes and swamp-deposits of the Newark meadows ; to the eastward, along Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 29 New York Bay, the drift is again concealed beneath similar de- posits, which are thus shown to be of a more recent date. Beginning with the oldest of these formations, and examining each in the order of its age, we hope, by giving what facts we have been able to gather concerning them, to find the position occupied by each stratum in the geological column, and to indi- cate at the same time the relation borne by the various forma- tions to the prosperity and sanitary condition of Hudson County. ARCHAZAN ROCKs. Gneiss and Mica Schist.—Rocks of this class occur at the very base of the geological column, and are among the oldest strata known ; their general appearance is no doubt familiar to most of my readers, from the abundant outcrops of these rocks on Manhattan Island. Wherever the Archean rock comes to the surface in the neighborhood of New York, it is usually composed of highly crystalline gneiss, mica-schist, hornblende- schist, marble, etc. ; all of these were at one time earthy or cal- careous sediments, spread out in horizontal layers at the bottom of the Archean Ocean, and have since been upturned, folded and crumpled into their present contorted forms. During these changes in position, the strata have been altered and metamor- phosed by the action of heat and heated solutions, so that they now bear but little resemblance to the sand and mud of which they were originally composed. The minerals now forming these metamorphosed rocks are principally quartz, feldspar and mica, and still retain in their arrangement some indication of the strati- fied nature of the original deposits. Some of our citizens still remember a reef of this rock, formerly to be seen in Jersey City at low tide, between Washington and Green Streets and north of Harsimus Street ; this was a narrow crest, about one hundred feet in length, with nearly vertical walls ; the mud near at hand on either side being sixty feet deep. From specimens recently obtained, we learn that the rock forming this reef varied con- siderably in appearance, some of it being a typical mica-schist, with well-defined layers of mica, etc., while other portions were of gneiss appearing so compact and fine-grained that they re- 30 reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. sembled some of the trap rock at Bergen Hill at first glance. There was a second reef of the same nature formerly to be seen at the southern end of Washington Street, where it crosses the Morris Canal; this reef was penetrated to the depth of a thou- sand feet by a well bored at Matthieson and Wiechev’s sugar re- finery; the rock was reported to be mostly gneiss containing mica and quartz, and near the bottom ‘‘ white sandstone and shale.”(?) Both these exposures of gneiss and mica-schist, un- derlying Jersey City, have now been covered with earth, and the pier-heads carried beyond them. ‘There is but little doubt that this same line of reefs extends southward of Jersey City, and forms the main portion of Ellis’s, Bedlow’s and Oyster Islands, and Robbins’s Reef. This belt of Archzan rocks reap- pears on Staten Island, but is soon covered by more recent deposits ; it again comes to the surface at Trenton, and is again concealed nearly to Philadelphia, whence it stretches far to the southward. Although this formation has but slight economic importance in Jersey City, further than forming a firm foundation on which to build; and has but little immediate influence on the health of the people, yet its physical history makes it an interesting subject of study for the geologist. Serpentine.—The serpentine associated with the belt of Ar- chean rocks that borders Hudson County on the east, is the dark-green variety, as distinguished from the light greenish- yellow or precious serpentine found in other localities. The cliffs overlooking the Hudson at Castle Point, Hoboken, present a fine exposure of this dark-green earthy rock; it shows con- siderable variation, however, bemg sometimes yellowish and dull in appearance, and so earthy and incoherent as to crumble be- tween the fingers. In some places it is quite compact, and may be dressed so as to furnish an ornamental although inferior building-stone ; it has been used with very pleasing results in constructing the beautiful gateway and porter’s lodge at Castle Point. The hill of serpentine at Hoboken is less than half a mile in length along the river bank, and from two to three hundred feet wide, and covers an area of about thirty acres. Seemingly it is the northern exposure of a belt of this kind of serpentine that has been reached by boring at a depth of 179 feet at the end of $ ; j ee ae ol as. te Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 31 Long Dock, Jersey City, and which appears at the surface in the hills on Staten Island ; some of the deep wells in Jersey City, or at Timbech and Betz’s brewery on Ninth Street, near Grove Street,—which at a depth of between 700 and 800 feet penetrated a light-colored rock, that yielded a supply of water strongly im- pregnated with magnesia,—indicate that they penetrated ser- pentine or some closely associated rock. The serpentine outcropping on Manhattan Island, at the foot of 60th Street, near the Hudson, is quite different in its charac- teristic features from the serpentine appearing at Hoboken; it is compact, very dark-green or nearly black in color, and is sometimes mingled with calcite, forming an ophicalcite that is strikingly similar to the Canadian serpentine in which Hozoon is found; other portions of this serpentine are spangled with flakes of tale, or shot through with bladed crystals of tremolite ; and associated with it occurs anthophyllite. At a number of localities, both northward and southward, in ‘the New York belt of Archean rocks, beds of dark-green ser- pentine are found, bearing sometimes a close resemblance to that occurring at Hoboken ; while the serpentine occurring in the crystalline rocks of the New Jersey highlands, and in the corresponding formation to the eastward, in New England, is commonly the light-colored or precious variety. At Hoboken, the serpentine appears to rest upon the gneiss rocks which outcrop farther south ; it is probably but a portion of the same series, however, and corresponds in position with the serpentine found so abundantly in the Archean rocks of other regions. ‘This rock is essentially a silicate of magnesia, and contains also chrome iron scattered through it in small specks and grains; from the fissures in the rock the magnesian minerals, marmolite, brucite, nemalite and magnesite may be obtained. As stated by Mr. Ward,* the serpentine is granular and porous in texture; absorbs surface-water promptly, thereby greatly promoting natural drainage; transmits heat very slowly K , * : but retains it tenaciously, forming a highly salubrious sub- stratum. * Memorandum on the Soil, Contour and Drainage of HudsonCounty. By L. B. Ward, C. E. Rep of County Board of Health, 1877, p. 8. 32 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. Associated with the serpentine at Hoboken, and overlying it, there occurs an exceedingly hard jasperoid rock,* which was for- merly to be seen in the neighborhood of the Stevens Institute, but has since been concealed by buildings and park improve- ments. We have referred this rock to the Archean series, as will be seen in the generalized section of the rocks of Hudson County, accompanying this essay, but can offer little informa- tion concerning it. TRIASSIC Rocks. Sandstones, Shales and Slates.—Resting on the upturned and probably eroded edges of the gneiss and mica-schist in Hudson County, are sedimentary beds of Triassic age, which, like the Archean rocks already noticed, are:in most cases but indif- ferently exposed. ‘The Triassic formation appears usually as evenly bedded strata of reddish-brown standstone and soft red- dish shale, together with thinly stratified slates—the whole series dipping towards the northwest with great uniformity at an angle of about fifteen degrees. On the extreme western border of Hudson County, forming the high narrow ridge that separates the Newark Meadows from the valley of the Passaic River, the reddish-brown sandstones and shales are splendidly exposed. ‘This ridge has nearly as great an elevation as Bergen Hill, and indicates in a very strik- ing manner the vast amount of material that has been removed by erosion from the country now occupied by the Newark meadows. In the deep cut made for the passage of the New York and Greenwood Lake railroad, extending from Arlington to the Passaic River, the strata of reddish-brown sandstones are thinly bedded, the strata seldom being over two feet thick, with partings of red shale between, the whole series inclined at the normal angle of fifteen degrees towards the northwest. One of the most interesting features in this section is the occurrence near the middle of it of a fissure which has parted the rocks — in a nearly north and south direction, or parallel to their strike. This fissure is about five feet wide, and is filled in with * We adopt the name proposed for this rock some ten years since by Dr. Henry Wurtz. ae Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 33 debris from the red sandstone rocks through which it passes ; its walls are altered in texture and color as if by the action of heat, and when freshly broken are of a bright brick-red color. The fragments filling the fissure are small near the walls, and imbedded in an earthy or shaly mass; they are usually rounded ‘and show polished or ‘‘ slickenside” surfaces. The central part p of the fissure is filled with larger masses of sandstone, which show more alteration, both in texture and color, than the walls, and have also slickenside surfaces. ‘The bedding of the sand- stones and shales is unaltered where they approach the fissure. The metamorphic action is not confined to the immediate walls of the fracture, but may be traced at least seventy-five or a hun- _ dred feet on either side. These facts seem strongly to indicate that the fissure not far below the surface is filled with igneous rock, the heat from which has partially metamorphosed the rocks now exposed. This fissure has still greater interest when studied in connection with the dikes and sheets of trap occur- _ring along the west bank of the Hudson. It is not out of place to state here, that no fossils were dis- covered during the construction of the railroad cut at Arlington, and that no foot-prints, rain-drop impressions, sun-cracks, etc., were found ; the only markings that occur here are very obscure impressions, that have the general appearance of sea-weeds or worm-burrows. ‘The sandstones and shales here so well exposed give a fair representation of the character of the Triassic rocks covering a large portion of New Jersey, except that in some in- stances the sandstone is lighter colored and more feldspathic. Not more than a mile northward of Arlington, and on a line with the fracture we have described as occurring in the railroad cut, the copper-mine near Belleville is situated. This is known as the Schuyler Mine: it has been worked at intervals since 1717, and has been extensively wrought, as the abandoned shafts and galleries testify. ‘he rock here is a light-colored or nearly white sandstone impregnated with the carbonate of copper; the silicate and red oxide of copper are also present. ‘The sand- stone is traversed in places by thin sheets of trap, although no dikes or sheets of this rock appear at the surface: it is thus seen that the copper-bearing sandstone here has the same geological relations as that occurring in other places in the Triassic area of 34 (Heology of Hudson County, New Jersey. New Jersey; they are contact deposits, very commonly associ- ated with outbursts of trap, and although sometimes making a good showing of ore, yet at least in New Jersey have never proved profitable in working. Copper-bearing sandstone of the same nature as that of the Schuyler mine, is exposed in a small quarry near Arlington, at the base of the bluffs overlooking the Newark meadows. On the northern side of Snake Hill, the Triassic sedimentary rocks are well shown in the prison quarry, and present their normal dip of 15° N. W. Interstratified with the reddish- brown sandstones and shales, are two irregular beds of lght- colored sandstone, from two to four feet thick, impregnated with the carbonate of copper, and closely resembling the sand-_ stone in the old copper-mine at Belleville. On the west side of the hill, where the sandstones are exposed close up to the trap, they have been shattered in every direction, and are light-colored and sometimes pinkish in tint; the dip of the rocks here is from 30° to 35° N. W. The Trias is again exposed on the south side of the hill in a small cut made for the New York and Greenwood Lake Railroad ; the rocks are here light-colored sandstone, with partings of shale dipping 14° N. W., and all considerably fractured. The upland ad- | joining Snake Hill on the northward is also underlaid at a depth of a few feet, as borings show, by sandstones and shales. A well eighty feet deep, on the Newark turnpike, near its junction with the Belleville turnpike, south of Snake Hill, penetrated the red sandstone which underlies this section of the swamp ; other wells in the same region, some of them two hun- dred feet deep, failed to reach it.* On the western side of Bergen Neck, the Triassic beds appear, and have been quarried to a limited extent. ; On the eastern border of Hudson County, beneath the trap bluffs along the bank of the Hudson, the Triassic sedimentary beds are again exposed. ‘The stratified rocks appear first, com- mencing at the southward, beneath the trap of Bergen Hill * Vide Table No. 1 at the end of this article. ee ee J , : a | ; ey —).- > Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. Bd. directly northwest of Castle Point; from this point north- ward all the way to Bull’s Ferry, these rocks are exposed, ex-- cept where cut out by dikes of trap or covered by debris ; throughout this whole section we find thinly-bedded, dark- colored slates, feldspathic sandstone, and shale, all of which have been more or less metamorphosed by the heat of the associated trap; the dip throughout this section, except where plainly dis- turbed by the intrusion of the trap, is N. W. 15°. The details of this series of exposures will be more fully given in connection with the description of the trap-sheets. The economic importance of the Triassic sedimentary rocks in Hudson County is very limited indeed; the sandstone at ‘Snake Hill has been used for building-stone, but the supply is small and the quality inferior. An attempt has been made to utilize the slaty layer beneath the trap at Weehawken for roofing- slate, but without success. ‘The importance of the quarries of Triassic ‘‘brown-stone” in other portions of the State is very great. From the extensive Newark quarries, large quantities of building-stone are furnished for New York and the neighboring cities; great quantities also come from quarries of the same charecter and age in the Connecticut Valley. The Belleville copper-mine has already been mentioned ; but, ulthough worked more extensively than any of the other copper- mines in the Trias of New Jersey, it has proved, like the rest, little more than a delusion to those interested in its deyel- opment. In a sanitary point of view, the inclined strata of alternating layers of sandstone and shale present one of the best substratums that could be desired; not only do the character and inclina- tion of the rock furnish a complete natural drainage, but it is also a poor conductor of heat, and thus retains the warmth at the surface. Unfortunately, this formation has been so deeply eroded and covered by subsequent deposits, that its beneficial influence is but little felt, except in the high ridge bordering the Passaic River. Trap-Rock.—As already mentioned, trap-rock occurs in thin layers, penetrating the sandstone at the Schuyler mine. In the Newark meadows, midway between Bergen Hill and the highland bordering the Passaic, are the trap-hills called Snake 36 freolugy of Hudson County, New Jersey. Till and Little Snake Hill, rising as islands in the salt marsh. - The former of these is 175 feet high, and is about one and a half miles in circumference ; the second, situated about 80 rods to the eastward, is very much smaller, with an elevation of 78 feet. These are chimney-like protrusions of trap that have been forced out between the layers of sandstone, causing some disturbance, and are without doubt connected some distance below the sur- face with the main trap-sheet forming Bergen Hill. The trap- rock protruding at Snake Hill is of the same nature as that forming Bergen Hill, which will be described further on. As already noticed, the sedimentary beds, when they come in con- tact with the igneous rock forming Snake Hill, are very much shattered, and altered in texture; the trap seems to have fol- lowed in a general way the bedding of the sedimentary strata, but has increased the dip of the sandstone on the northwest side to 30° or 35°. As previously mentioned, the trap-ridge forming the elevated region of Bergen Hill, is a portion of the Palisade range; this ridge is highest at its northern end, and descends quite uni- formly towards the south. At Haverstraw, the loftiest summit, called the High Torn, is 1015 feet above the Hudson ; opposite Hastings the elevation is 489 feet, the highest point of the ridge in New Jersey; at Guttenberg, near the northern boundary of Hudson County, the elevation is 260 feet; thence it de- creases in hight southward, until at Bergen Point the trap has been cut through by the Kill Von Kull. In the north- ern portion of the county the trap is fully a mile and a half wide, and narrows quite regularly when followed southward. At a few localities along the eastern shore of Newark Bay, the trap-rock may be observed coming up from beneath the water, with its usual dip of ten to fifteen degrees northwest ; it is only along the shore, where the superficial material has been removed, that the trap-rock beneath can be seen; over nearly the whole of Bergen Neck and Bergen Point it is concealed by drift and sand-dunes. On the eastern side of Bergen Neck, near Greenville, the trap protrudes in a dome-shaped mass, showing a roche-moutonnée surface, and several bold rounded knobs, also exhibiting glacial action, protrude above the sur- rounding drift along the Morris Canal, where it passes through the hill. Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 37 By far the best exposures of the trap are to be seen in the various railroad cuts and tunnels that have been made through Bergen Hill. The eastern face of the trap-sheet is exposed southwest of — Lafayette, where the N. J. Central Railroad crosses the Morris Canal; thence northward, it appears at intervals in the steep hill-side west of Jersey City. The point of rocks called Fairmount, near the eastern end of the Pennsylvania Railroad cut, is an outlying mass of trap, forming an island in the salt marsh ; its isolated position is due to the fact that the trap form- ing it was intruded among the sedimentary beds—which have since been eroded away—at a lower level than the main sheet of trap to the westward with which it is connected ; the trap has been quarried at a number of places near Fairmount, and is well exposed. From this point northward the exposures of trap become more frequent along the eastern slope of the hill, and at length, at the foot of the hill, directly northwest of Castle Point, the base of the trap-sheet is seen resting on metamor- phosed slates. At the first locality where the stratified rocks are exposed beneath the trap, they are mostly slaty in structure, with an inclination of fifteen degrees towards the northwest, and are covered uniformly by the trap. About 150 yards north of the first exposure, the metamorphosed slates and quartzites, in beds from a few inches to four feet in thickness, form the lower thirty or forty feet of the cliff, having the usual northwest dip; resting on the uneven upper surface of these stratified beds, the trap occurs, forming the remaining fifty or sixty feet of the hill. The stratified rocks continue to be exposed more or less per- fectly, until the face of the precipice turns eastward at nearly a right angle, and forms a bold projecting promontory, on which an observing-tower now stands ; at the base of the perpendicular cliffs below the tower, the trap comes down to the level of the marsh, and plainly cuts out the stratified beds which appear on either side of it. Two or three hundred yards southwest of the tower, the stratified slates are exposed in the side of the cliff, some fifty or sixty feet above the marsh, and are inclined at an angle of about 20° towards the southwest, showing that they have been disturbed by the intrusion of the trap, Just around the angle of the cliff, northward of the tower, and along the 38 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. side of the road leading up to Union Till, the stratified rocks are once more exposed beneath the trap. At the ‘‘ Hundred — Steps” about forty feet of feldspathic sandstone—arkose—is ex- posed beneath one hundred and ten or fifteen feet of trap; the junction between the two being so sharply defined that it may be brought within the field of a microscope, when a flake from the surface of contact has been ground down so as to be trans- lucent. About eighty yards northward of the high cliffs on which the observing-tower stands, the face of the cliffs forms another angle, where the trap once more breaks through and cuts off the stratified rocks. | i Along the Union Hill road, opposite the porter’s lodge of Mr. King’s estate, the stratified rocks when last seen are between sixty and seventy feet above the river: crossing the little stream known as the Awiehaken, and proceeding to the base of the bold precipice forming King’s Point, we find the trap breaking through the sedimentary beds nearly on a level with the Hud- son, showing that the main trap-sheet has shifted its position, in reference to the stratified beds with which it is associated, at least forty or fifty feet ; or, to speak more accurately, the main trap-sheet has divided, sending out a branching layer of trap from the lower side. At the base of the cliff forming King’s Point, the metamor- phosed slates and shales below the trap are cut out, as shown in the following section (Fig. 1), by the breaking through of the trap ; the section exhibits, also, an intrusive sheet of trap, an offshoot from the large mass shown in the left of the section, which is a little less than four feet thick; the finely stratified slates, both above and below this thin intruded sheet, are in- tensely metamorphosed and have a jaspery structure. ‘Tracing this thin bed of trap towards the south, where it approaches the great dike, it cuts through the slates on which it rests, and forces its way in between the layer below ; after this change, the borders of the trap-sheet, as exposed in the face of the cliff, are not well defined and are considerably contorted ; in places masses of slate have been included in the trap. The junction of this small trap-sheet with the main dike is concealed by debris. | ——* a at the base of the cliff, like that at (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 39 Fig. 1.—SECTION AS EXPOSED IN THE FACE OF THE CLIFF NEAR THE DUEL GROUND, WEEHAWKEN The trap forming the small sheet the base of the main trap-sheet above, isa dark-bluish, fine-grained aname- site, breaking with a conchoidal frac- To ture. The four-feet stratum of trap fon of ue can be traced northward about seven- ty yards, when the dip of the rocks carries it below the surface. Tracing the stratified rocks about 150 yards farther north, we find them somewhat disturbed from their nor- mal position and dipping 30°—35° Metamorphos- northwest; a few yards further on they ed Slate, are inclined to the southwest, and a 40 fi bed of trap four feet thick comes in ; this trap is like the first thin bed, is Whe Trap, 41 in. dark-bluish, fine-grained, and yellow ; Pee le ye Debris. on the weathered surface; it is exposed Hudson River. for only a few feet, and is then covered with debris. About thirty feet above the river, at the point where the sandstones begin to widen out at the base of the cliff to form Day’s Point, a division of the trap-sheet is exposed in the face of the cliff, as represented in the following section. Fig. 2.—SECTION EXPOSED IN THE CLIFFS AT WEEHAWKEN. The stratified rocks are here of the same nature as in the pre- vious section, and all are very much alter- Trap to top of Cliff. Included meta- ed by heat. morphosed From this point, go- Slate, 15 ft. ing northward along the banks of the Trap 5 feet. Metamorphosed Hudson, the strati- = Slateto Hudson. 40 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. fied rocks are covered with debris, most of which has fallen from the cliffs of trap that rise above. Just where the upland that projects into the river, forming Day’s Point, sweeps back to meet the cliffs once more, the trap again comes down to nearly the level of the Hudson. Three hundred yards farther north, are the extensive quarries near the Weehawken ferry; there is here a section of about thirty feet of slates and sandstones exposed beneath the trap ; at this locality fish-scales and the shells of a Cypris have been found in the slaty rock. Continuing northward, we find abundant exposures of the sedimentary beds beneath the trap, the light-colored sandstones coming in, however, more abundantly than before. Just north of Kohler and Sons’ brewery, the ‘‘ seven-story brewery,” by the side of a private road that leads to the top of the hill, an irregular trap-dike is seen breaking through the light-colored sandstone that forms the base of the cliff. The dike is four feet thick, and composed of dark-bluish fine-grained anamesite, showing an imperfect columnar struc- ture at right angles to the walls of the fissure. All the way from Kohler and Sons’ brewery to Bull’s Ferry, the lower twenty or thirty feet of the cliffs is composed of light — colored feldspathic sandstone, the seams in the rock sometimes yielding specimens of dendritic manganese. At the village of Bull’s Ferry, the trap forms a bold er and seems to cut out the stratified beds once more, as at King’s Point. In the village the metamorphosed slates are again well exposed, with all the characteristics seen at Weehawken. Just north of Bull’s Ferry the following section is shown—dip north- west 15°. Trap-rock, - - - - 120 feet. Dark heavily-bedded slates, - 1 oro Light-colored sandstone, - - Gas Dark evenly-bedded slates, somewhat metamorphosed, - - - 30 ‘* to river. 201 Sa i (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 41 The joints of the slate are frequently rounded off and slick- ensided. Some of the layers of slate near the trap are covered with a net-work of intersecting ridges, looking like casts of shrinkage-cracks ; sometimes the under surface of the trap has taken an accurate cast of these markings. ‘The markings men- tioned should probably be referred to the action of the heated trap on the material now forming the slate, causing it to crack in imitation of shrinkage-cracks produced when wet mud is allowed to dry in the sun. No ripple-marks, rain-drop impres- sions or foot-prints were observed, or have ever been reported, from these exposures of Triassic rock. Bull’s Ferry is on the northern boundary of Hudson County ; the trap-sheet continues, as we have already stated, northward of this point, forming the Palisades. On the western side of Bergen Hill, at West End, and far- ther northwest of Union Hill, there are long ranges of trap parallel with Bergen Hill, now worn and rounded, and separated from it by a narrow area of level land ; these appear to be the outcropping edges of thin trap-sheets that branched off from the main sheet on the upper side, in the same manner as those exposed beneath the trap-sheet at Weehawken were formed on the lower side. Throughout the whole section which we have examined along the bank of the Hudson, there is abundant and cumulative evi- dence that the main sheet for the most part rests unconform- ably upon the broken edges of the stratified rocks, but still has followed in a general way the planes of bedding of the sandstones and slates. - Another phase that the trap-sheets present, is illustrated in the First Newark Mountain, at Plainfield, N. J., where meta- — morphosed shale is exposed on the top of the trap-ridge three hundred feet akove the surrounding plain, with trap both above and below it. In the same ridge, west of Bound Brook, eight miles south- west of Plainfield, there is a deep valley in the trap which runs parallel with the strike of the ridge. Such a valley could only have been formed by the removal of a mass of stratified rock, which at one time must have divided the trap-sheet, in the same manner as the shale does that is now exposed at Plainfield. 42 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. The open fissure at Arlington, which is without doubt filled below with trap, and other thin shects of the same rock pene- trating the sandstone in the Schuyler mine, also aid us in un- derstanding the genesis of the Triassic trap-rocks. Grouping all these phenomena together, we are enabled to construct an ideal trap-sheet, as it would appear while yet in- closed in the stratified rocks among which it was intruded, or before it was exposed by denudation. A cross-section of such an ideal trap-sheet is shown in the following diagram, which repre- sents a main intrusion of trap like that forming the Palisades or the First Newark Mountain, with its branching or secondary sheets and dikes. Fig. 3.—IDEAL SECTION OF TRAP-SHEET. AEE Ne ELILEE| —_ —— — SSE —== A= —S= i If denudation should have removed the material to the right of the line C, D,—an exposure would be made similar to that now seen in the cliffs at Weehawken. Were the rocks above the dotted line #, F, G, removed, the trap-sheet at / would protrude and form a hill, like Snake Hill and Little Snake Hill, while the sheet #, when denuded and rounded off, would correspond with the low ridge of trap along the west- ern border of Bergen Hill. In the same manner, if the acci- dents of erosion should expose the rocks along the line 4, B, the conditions now shown at Plainfield and Bound Brook would result. The Arlington fissure is indicated at @. ee Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 43 In the cut of the New Jersey Railroad through Bergen Hill, near the western end of the cut, a deep depression occurs in the trap, nearly 900 feet wide; the place once occupied by shale or sandstone is now filled with drift and gravel, and has been quite extensively excavated for railroad ballast, etc. ‘This area appears to be included between the main trap-sheet and the outcropping edge of a smaller secondary sheet to the westward, and extends indefinitely in a north and south direction; it has been exca- vated to the depth of 30 or 40 feet; the rock bottom, however, ds very much lower. Other areas analogous to this may be looked for along the western slope of Bergen Hill, and should receive close attention from those interested in the drainage of this region. The “‘big pocket” in the Erie tunnel,* appears to have been a mass of metamorphosed shale included between sheets of trap; this locality is but a short distance northward of the hollow cut through by the New Jersey Railroad, which appears to have been eroded from thv same series of metamor- phosed shale. ‘his included bed of shale was again crossed by the tunnel of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Rail- road at some distance from the east end of the tunnel ; but the rock also fell in, forming a ‘‘ pocket,” as in the Erie tunnel. The reservoir built some time since is situated above this broken area. We are thus furnished with three points on the line of this included stratum of shale. The trap-sheet that projects eastward of the main ridge, and forms Fairmount Point, can be readily traced to its junction with the main trap-sheet at Newark Avenue ; thrust out from the under surface of the main mass, it has followed the bed- ding of the stratified rocks, between which it cooled ; the Jersey City cemetery is situated on this shelf of trap. Passing this ledge a few feet to the eastward, soundings show 70 to 80 feet of mud without reaching rock bottom. Other exposures of dikes or outlying masses of trap may be similarly accounted for. Wherever the trap is exposed in Hudson County, it appears as a compact dark-bluish rock, impervious to moisture, and usu- ally breaking equally well im all directions. ‘The rock is more * ** Geology of New Jersey,” Prof. Cook, 1868, p. 216. 44 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. compact and fine-grained when obtained from the eastern side of the hill, 2. e., the lower surface of the trap-sheet. The west- ern or upper surface shows a much coarser texture, and is more difficult to break into regular blocks; for this reason, the rock along the eastern face of the hill is best suited for shaping into paying and building-stones, though the very fine-grained stone at the bottom of the hill is also more difficult to work than the intermediate variety. This difference in the texture of the trap can be readily seen in the clitfs at Weehawken ; the rock near the base of the cliff, where it comes in contact with the sedi- mentary beds below, is very compact, crypto-crystalline, and breaks with a conchoidal fracture; while in the same cliff, a hundred feet above, the separate crystals of augite and feldspar can be distinguished by the unaided eye. The rock that is in- termediate in structure furnishes the best paving and building stones. When a thin chip of the trap-rock is ground down on a lapi- dary’s wheel sufficiently thin to be translucent, it is found, upon examination with a microscope, to consist principally of bladed crystals of augite, sometimes hornblende, and a feldspar, usually oligoclase ; these crystals are interlaced in every direction, and frequently interspersed with dark masses of magnetite. It is principally the size of the augite and feldspar crystals, that de-— termines the texture of the rock.* The crystalline structure of the trap furnishes one of the proofs that 1t was at some time in a fused or semi-fused condi- tion, and has become a crystalline solid upon cooling. ‘That the trap was forced in between the layers of sandstone and shale, and also injected into fissures therein, forming dikes, we have al- ready given abundant proof. As may be seen in the section along the bank of the Hudson, the stratified rocks beneath the main trap-sheet are always altered and more or less metamor- phosed ; the junction of the main trap-sheet with the overlying sedimentary beds is not exposed in Hudson County, though it * Analyses of the trap from the Erie Railway tunnel in Bergen Hill, are given in Prof. Cook’s “‘ Report on the Geology of New Jersey,” 1868, pp. 215 and 216, with remarks upon cer- tain of the varieties. reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 45 is reported to be shown farther northward at Englewood. The condition, however, of the sedimentary beds resting on the upper surface of one of the trap-sheets is well shown on the western slope of the First Newark Mountain at Feltville. * In the glacial drift covering Bergen Hill, Weehawken, etc., are many boulders and large irregular masses of metamorphosed shale or slate, identical with the rock outcropping beneath the trap at Weehawken ; these boulders were doubtless derived from the metamorphosed slate overlying the main shcet of trap in the immediate vicinity. Minerals of the Trap.—The beautiful minerals obtained at Bergen Mill during the construction of the railroad tunnels and cuts, are familiar to all collectors. They are mainly zeolites,— hydrous silicates of alumina and alkalies,—and are the result of the deposition of these substances, in varying proportions, in the cavities and fissures of the trap, whither they have been carried in solution by percolating waters, which, especially under the influence of heat and pressure, have great solvent powers upon the constituents of the trap. tf Economic Importance of the Trap.—Vhe fine-grained rock along the eastern face of Bergen Hill, furnishes an excellent material for paving and building, as it can be broken with ease and certainty into blocks of the desired size and shape; Hudson County produces each year many thousands of such paving-blocks, and the demand will no doubt continue to increase. The fine-grained trap, when broken into small fragments, fur- nishes one of the very best materials for macadamizing roads or for railroad ballast; and the chips and waste from the manufac- ture of paving and building-stones should be utilized for such purposes. The value of the rock of the Palisade range, as a building- stone, seems to be scarcely appreciated, although there are several examples of its use for substantial edifices: the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken, and St. Joseph’s and St. Patrick’s churches on the Hights, are constructed of this ma- * “On the Intrusive Nature of the Triassic Trap sheets of New Jersey.”” Amer. J. Sci.,Vol. XV, p. 277, 1878. + For further reference to the Bergen minerals, see note at the end of this article. 46 (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. terial. A more durable stone for architectural purposes cannot be easily obtained, and when its somewhat sombre tone is re- lieved by trimmings of lighter-colored stone, the effect is highly pleasing. The use of the ‘‘ brown stone,” so abundant in New Jersey and Connecticut, is certainly to be deprecated, especially for the construction of our more costly edifices ; even as an ornamental stone, for the lighter portions of buildings, it is far inferior, both in durability and beauty, to the brighter colored and more vitreous Potsdam sandstone from the northern part of the State of New York. It should be borne in mind, in matters relating to the sanitary conditions of Hudson County, and in the laying out of streets, the building of sewers, the placing of gas and water pipes, ete., that the ridge of Bergen [ill is the outcropping edge of a stra- tum or bed of impervious rock, inclined to the northwest some 10 to 15 degrees. The upper surface of the hill, especially towards the eastward, is but little affected by this inclination of the strata, as it has been worn down by denuding agencies to a very irregular and uneyen plane surface, which has no good natural drainage. The hill owes its elevation not to the upheaval of the rocks composing it, but to the fact that it is formed of harder material than the neighboring beds, and has thus been enabled to resist in a great measure the destrnction that has removed the softer stratified rocks that once surrounded and covered it. b) The Triassic Foundation in New Jersey.—The great Triassic area, of which the shales and sandstones so familiar in Hudson County form the eastern edge, has a breadth of about thirty miles, and extends from Stony Point on the Hudson, southward through the State ; crossing the Delaware and the Potomae, it reaches in broken areas through Virginia and into North Caro- na. The stratified rocks throughout this great region are chiefly interbedded sandstones and shales, usually reddish or brownish in color, including at times some dark thinly-bedded slates and light-colored sandstone; the whole series inclining westward. In New Jersey the dip of 15° N. W. is remarkably persistent. ; In the Connecticut Valley, there is another area of Triassic ee See a Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 47 rocks, extending from New Haven northward, for one hundred and twenty-five miles. ‘These rocks seem identical in their litho- logical peculiarities, their fossils, ete., with the corresponding beds in New Jersey, save that they dip in the opposite direction. Viewed as a whole, many converging lines of proof tend strongly to show that these eastern and western areas are portions of one great estuary deposit, the central part of which has been up- heaved and removed by denudation. ‘The facts upon which this conclusion is based have been presented at length in a previous paper in the Annals of this Academy.* The abrupt manner in which the stratified rocks are broken off, as shown in the bold line of cliffs on the western bank of the _ Hudson,—the strata dipping N. W. 15°,—would indicate that the arch must once have been complete, and that the Triassic beds formerly extended far to the eastward of their present limit. The section seen on the bank of the Hudson at Day’s Point, two miles above Castle Point, is shown in the following diagram :— Fig. 4.—SecTION AT DaAy’s Point, WEEHAWKEN. BA SD a SES = mawenetenees 7 << S Z y wisssaese MAM WY) NEW. S. E. T represents the main trap-sheet forming the hights of Wee- hawken, with its top worn down by glacial action and covered with the layer (D) of drift. Beneath the trap, the Triassic slates and sandstones compose the base of the cliff, and extend out over five hundred feet into the river, forming Day’s Point, and then breaking off in an abrupt cliff at the water’s edge ; the whole series having the usual dip of 15° N. W. The strata immediately beneath the trap are finely stratified slates or meta- * Annals of N. Y. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I, 1878, pp. 220—254. 48 (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. morphosed shales, (S’) while those forming Day’s Point are light yellowish feldspathic sandstones. vel a ‘The igneous rock of the Palisade range also shows that it must have been confined by other rocks on the eastward, now removed, or else the molten rock would have poured out and formed a table-land like those so common in New Mexico. At Haver- straw, as already stated, the trap forms the top of the mountain a thousand feet above the bed of the river. Such facts cannot be explained except by supposing that the igneous rock was in- closed in sedimentary beds at the time of its intrusion. All this may seem a digression, but it is only when we assign the few facts to be gleaned in the geology of Hudson Connie to their proper place in the long history of changes and revolutions which our continent has undergone, that we can understand and appreciate their full significance. During the deposition of the sand and mud now forming our Triassic rock, the Highlands of northern New Jersey formed part of the shore-line that bordered the estuary on the west. Could we have stood beneath the ferns, cycads and spreading coniferous trees which then shaded that picturesque coast, we should have seen over all the region to the eastward—where are now the fruitful farms of New Jersey interspersed with thriving cities and villages—only rolling turbid waters; their eastern boundary far beyond the range of vision. When the tide was out, a broad area of smooth shining mud bordered the shore, closely similar to that now to be seen along the Bay of Fundy at low tide. This plastic surface bordering the old Triassic estuary, was the day-book on which the records of passing events were inscribed. In fancy, we can see the wind rippling the waters us they retreat from the shore, and forming the sand and mud into low parallel ridges or ‘‘ripple marks.” A cloud obscures the sun, and soon great drops of rain patter on the strange vege- tation around; falling upon the soft mud, the rain-drops leave little circular depressions, the nature of which indicates the di- rection of the wind. In other places, many acres of the muddy surface are crowded with a net-work of intersecting fissures, caused by the shrinking and cracking of the mud when it dries in the sun. From the waters, strange uncouth monsters emerge, and striding over the muddy shores towards the ferns and giant Sea. ii it li al tes reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 49 rushes that border the upland, leave long lines of foot-prints behind them. Mingled with these various markings are here and there the fronds of ferns or cycads, and the twigs and cones from the larger coniferous trees. When the next tide comes in, all these records of physical changes and of animal and vegetable life are covered with a layer of mud and sand, to be preserved for indefinite ages. That such were the scenes along the base of the New Jersey Highlands in Triassic times, every one can determine for himself. On breaking open the stony layers, all the records just men- tioned may be found as well-defined and legible, after millions of years, as if impressed upon the soft sands but yesterday. In these same beds are found in great abundance the remains of the fishes that swam in the Triassic estuary ; these are lepido- ganoids (Catopterus, Ischypterus, etc.), covered with small dia- mond-shaped scales, and have their nearest living representatives in the ‘‘ gar pikes” (Lepidosteus) of our northern lakes, and the Polypterus of the Nile. After long subsidence, during which thousands of feet of sedi- ment accumulated in the Triassic estuary, a reverse movement began and the bottom was upheaved, bringing the stratified rocks, especially those of the central region, within the reach of denuding agencies. The gradual folding of the crystalline rocks beneath the Trias ended finally in the fracture of the rocks in long lines parallel with the axis of upheaval. Through these fissures molten rock from beneath was forced out, and found its way into the stratified beds above, sometimes opening the layers and forming intruded sheets of igneous rock, while at other times the stratified beds were fractured, and the injected ma- terial filled the fissures and formed true dikes. Examples of each of these modes of occurrence, as already described, are to be seen along the bank of the Hudson. In New Jersey, there are four main lines of fracture through which the igneous rocks escaped ; these are now indicated by the long curved mountains of trap that diversify the scenery of the Triassic area. The most easterly of these is the Palisade range ; this is bent into the form of acrescent by having its extremities curved abruptly to the westward. About ten miles westward of the Palisade range and 50 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. concentric with it, occurs the First Newark Mountain, also a crescent or ‘‘canoe-shaped” ridge of trap. Scarcely half a mile westward of this is the Second Newark Mountain; and westward of this, again, is a fourth range of trap, much less regular than the others, and now appearing at the surface in detached areas. All these ridges slope to the westward at an average angle of 10—15 degrees, and present bold mural faces to the eastward, showing that they are outcropping edges of trap-sheets, that have been left in relief by the removal of the softer sedimentary beds that once inclosed them. QUATERNARY PERIOD. There are no records in the rocks of Hudson County, belong- ing to the Cretaceous or Tertiary ages, which followed the T'ri- assic ; during that immense lapse of time, this region must have stood above the sea, and been clothed with the varied and beautiful floras that have now passed away, and inhabited by the strange reptiles of the Cretaceous and by many of the various animals that roamed over our country in the mild and beautiful Tertiary age. During the latter period, a climate as genial as that of Virginia extended nearly if not fully to the pole, and clothed the northern hemisphere with magnificent forests of tem- perate and sub-tropical growths. In the succeeding period, all this summer beauty was blotted out, and an age of ice succeeded, when the present climate of high latitudes, with immense snow- fields and glaciers, spread southward, until all the region from Central New Jersey northward was buried beneath a vast mer de glace. The records of this glacial age occur abundantly in Hudson County, and form one of the most marked chapters in its history. The Drift.—Whenever the superficial material is removed from above the trap-rock in Hudson County, we invariably find the surface of the hard crystalline rock smoothed and polished, and all the projecting ledges worn and rounded off. This smoothed surface is also scratched and grooved in parallel lines bearing usually N. 10°—15° W. Upon this polished and striated surface rests an irregular, confused accumulation of earth and stones, from ten to twenty-five feet or more in thickness. This [— | ee ee ee ee ea — ape 7 er eS Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 51 sheet of drift is spread over all the highlands, and covering the hill-sides, dips beneath the more recent sand-dunes and salt- marshes along the Newark Bay on the west, and bordering the . New York Bay on the east. This drift consists mainly of broken and disintegrated red sandstone and shale, derived from the Triassic area to the westward, and gives the prevailing red- dish color to the soil. It also contains numerous boulders, fre- quently four or five feet in diameter ; some of these are of trap, doubtless derived from the hill itself; others are of metamor- phosed slate, the parent beds of which probably overlie the trap on the western slope of the hill; with these are mingled many masses of Triassic sandstone that could only have come from the region covered by that formation to the westward ; there are also other erratics in less numbers, composed of gneiss, quartzyte, conglomerate, etc.,—rocks that are found in place only in the Highlands of New Jersey, at least thirty miles west. When these transported boulders are examined more closely, we find many of them worn and rounded, and like the trap beneath, showing smoothed and scratched surfaces. Although the drift covers nearly the whole of the county, yet it accumulated most abundantly along the eastern side of Bergen Hill, under the lee of the trap-ridge; for the glaciers came from the northwest. The boulders are also especially noticeable where the finer ma- terial has been carried away, either naturally or for purposes of improvement, as in some of the squares at Lafayette, in the Hlysian Fields, etc. Another good exposure of the drift is to be seen along the line of the N. J. Central Railroad at Bergen Point; here the drift is overlaid by blown sand. _ Over Hudson County, the glaciers were of great thickness, and flowed towards the southeast with such force that the trap-ridge of Bergen Hill could not deflect them from their course. The long parallel scratches and grooves on the rocks, as well as the nature of the transported boulders, show that the ice moved from the northwest obliquely across the ridge. Throughout Long Island, on the northern border of Staten Island, and in an irregular line of hills crossing New Jersey near Plainfield, is the terminal moraine deposited by these ancient glaciers. To one familiar with existing glaciers, and the records that they leave on the rocks over which they move, nothing is easier 52 (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. than to determine the former presence of glaciers on a grand scale in Hudson County. These glaciers retreated northward as this geological winter drew to a close, leaving behind the ma- terial that had been ground out and carried away from the un- derlying rocks; this moraine profonde covers nearly the whole surface formerly occupied by the glaciers. The material left by melting ice 1s unassorted, and seldom shows any stratification. But the melting of the glaciers caused floods, similar to those now occurring with the opening of spring, save on a far grander scale, which washed away large portions of this glaciated debris, and deposited it elsewhere, more or less perfectly assorted ; the same end was also accomplished when the material was brought within the action of the waves and currents of the ocean or rivers. Examples of this modified drift, showing irregular layers of sand, gravel, and small boulders, all worn and rounded, may be seen on the western side of Bergen Hill near West End, and from there northerly along the western base of the hill. At several places in Jersey City near the Hudson, excavations have exposed sections of this stratified drift ; these will receive farther notice in the section devoted to surface geology. | . These beds in Hudson County yield a fine quality of building- sand, and also coarser sand and gravel, well adapted for making sume kinds of mortars and concrete; the beds are always irregular, but sometimes of considerable importance. Among the economic uses of the drift, we should perhaps mention the abundant boulders, which furnish material suitable for the ruder kinds of masonry. MHolian Sands.—All along the western border of Hudson County, where the upland meets the waters of Newark Bay, or the swamp-deposits extending some distance northward, there occur hills of fine, yellow, loamy sand, resting on the drift; from _ their structure, it is evident that these hills and mounds are true sand-dunes, formed of blown sand, that must have been piled up along the borders of the county before the accumula- tions of peat and mud now filling the swamps. At Constable’s Point, this fine yellowish sand covers nearly the entire hill, the highest part of which is about fifty feet above high tide; the central portion, however, is made up of drift Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 53 material with huge boulders, over which the sand has drifted. At Caven Point, a repetition of these conditions may be observed. The upland, formed of glacial drift, containing quantities of transported boulders, on which Communipaw and Lafayette are situated, is covered to a large extent with similar sand. The islands formerly known as Paulus Hook, Harsimus, and Payonia, on which the older portion of Jersey City is built, have the same history as these other areas of xolian sand. Around the high land forming Castle Point, similar accumu- lations of glacial drift covered with blown sand may be seen ; the sandy region here underlies a large portion of Hoboken. Swamp Deposits.—The series of geological formations in Hud- son County is brought to a close by the salt meadows bordering the county on the east and west, and still in process of accu- mulation. ‘These are formed of vegetable growths, making a peaty mass, composed of matted stems and roots at the top, but becoming more compact and showing less vegetable structure at some distance below the surface ; the peat is frequently ren- dered impure by silt and mud brought in by high tides, and in places these muddy sediments predominate over the vegetable matter, and form a great depth of blue clay or mud. | j SURFACE GEOLOGY. Soils may be divided according to the mode of their forma- tion, into soils of disintegration and soils of transportation. The former are derived from the wearing away of the rocks upon which they rest, and owe their formation to the fact that -eyen the most compact and homogenous rocks, when subjected to meteoric agencies, are in time broken up and more or less decomposed. Disintegrated rock of this nature, with some ad- mixture of organic matter or humus, forms the soil over a large part of New Jersey. Soils of transportation, on the other hand, have resulted from the accumulation of material brought from distant sources, and are influenced but little by the nature of the underlying rock. As examples of soils of transportation, we have river drifts, consisting of sand, gravel, alluvium, ete. ; and also the earth, clay and sand filling lake-basins and estu- 54 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. aries ; and blown sand occurring in sand-dunes : more common than any of these, however, are the soils formed of glacial drift; this may vary widely in its nature, being sometimes sand, grayel, clay, shingle, etc., or these in all degrees of admixture. Besides these kinds, there are other soils formed of peat and bog earths, that are due mainly to organic agencies. The soils occurring in Hudson County are formed entirely of transported material, together with accumulations of peat and mud ;—soils resulting from the disintegration of the underlying rocks being unrepresented. ‘The soils of the county thus group themselves into four natural divisions according to their mode of origin; these at times are more or less intermingled, but are usually well characterized and easily distinguishable; they are, in the order of their age, as follows : 1st. Soils composed of glacial drift. 7 a ee “* stratified drift. (0 ale re ** eolian sand. Ath. <“‘ a ** peat and mud (now forming). 1. Soils of Glacial Drift.—These consist of the material that was left spread over the country by the retreating glaciers, viz. sand and clay, derived mainly from the grinding and disintegra- tion of the Triassic sandstones and shales. From the same source have these soils acquired their characteristic reddish color, due to the peroxide of iron they contain. Muingled with this reddish-clayey soil, are great numbers of stones and boulders, . often of large size, and mainly transported from the westward. This soil is quite constant in its composition, when unmodified by cultivation, drainage eto.; is rather stiff, owing to the amount of clay it contains; and is retentive of moisture. By its color and unstratified condition, it may be readily identified. This soil occurs covering the high ridge bordering Hudson County along the Passaic; eastward of this, it appears again around Snake Hill, and forms the surface of the upland known as Secaucus, northward of Snake Hill. South of Snake Hill, and between the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers, the boulders of the drift were struck at a depth of 125 feet, in the sinking of wells.* * Vide Table No. 1 at the end of this article. (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 55 Nearly the whole of the main upland of Hudson County, from the Kill Von Kull to Bull’s Ferry road, is covered with glacial drift soil. Its characteristic features are well shown at Bergen Point, along the line of the N. J. Central Railroad, and at the railroad cuts and street excavations in various parts of Bergen Till and Weehawken: the depth of the drift in these exposures varies from a few inches to twenty or thirty feet. Hastward of Bergen Hill, the glacial drift soil occurs at Con- stable’s Point, Caven Point, Communipaw, and Lafayette; also on the islands on which the older portion of Jersey City is built, viz. Paulus Hook, Harsimus, and Pavonia, and on the similar area northward of these around the serpentine hill forming Castle Point. At all these localities the reddish glacial drift, with its boulders, etc., is largely covered by blown sand, which forms our third division of soils. The amount of clay which these soils contain makes them less retentive of moisture, and therefore less desirable from a sanitary point of view, than more sandy and porous strata. This ten- dency to retain the surface water is counteracted in some portions of Hudson County by the slope of the underlying rocks, which secures a good natural drainage. This is the case on the western slope of Bergen Hill, and also on some portions of Bergen Neck and Bergen Point, where the drainage is to the eastward. Over a large area on the top of Bergen Hill, however, where the trap-rock has been worn down by glacial action to an irregular plane surface, the cover- ing of drift fills the depressions in the rocky floor beneath, and thus forms a soil, not only stiff and retentive, but also with an incomplete or in many cases total lack of drainage ; this region, IT understand, has long been known to resident physicians as one where malarial diseases particularly prevail. In some cases, wells have been sunk through the covering of drift on Bergen Mill, and a supply of water obtained from some of these con- eealed sink-holes, thus greatly endangering the health of those using the water. In West Hoboken and Weehawken, several of these depressions in the trap—some of them receiving the drain- age from considerable areas—may be seen ; they are now in the condition of lakelets or marshes filled with decaying vegetable matter, which become partially dried in the summer, and cer- ~ 56 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. tainly have anything but a beneficial influence on the health of the community. On the western side of the bill, and reaching sometimes nearly to the top of the slope, the soil is usually more sandy; but this is often a deceptive appearance, as the sand is a superficial cov- ering concealing the reddish glacial drift soil but a few inches below. Most of this region, however, has a natural drainage, which secures for it a greater salubrity than the irregular plain on the top of the hill enjoys. Soils of Stratified Drift.—The material left by the melting glaciers, when brought within the action of tides and currents, was assorted and more or less stratified, so as to fourm irregular and rapidly alternating accumulations of clay, sand, gravel, boulders, etc. Soils of this kind occur at many localities west- ward of Bergen Hill, near the junction of the upland with the salt marshes and Newark Bay. These deposits have been ex- cavated to obtain sand and gravel in the level areas in the neighborhood of New Durham, west of Weehawken, and at several points near West End, and may be recognized, although usually covered with sand-dunes, at a few localities farther south along Newark Bay. Kast of Bergen Hill, the best example of modified drift ex- posed in Hudson County is to be seen in the knoll north of Communipaw, near the southern end of Mill Creek. This hill has been cut away on the eastern side, to obtain building-sand und gravel, and exhibits a fine section of a ‘‘ kame,” as these knolls of modified drift are called. The varying strata of clay, sand, gravel and boulders, here exposed, are very irregular and frequently show the oblique lamination known as ‘‘ current bed- ding ;” the strata are frequently wedge-shaped or truncated, having keen eroded by the currents that deposited the next suc-. ceeding layer. These irregular beds vary from a fraction of an inch up to three or four feet in thickness, and were evidently de- posited in strong and frequently changing currents. This hill is plainly the remnant of a great deposit of drift which at one time probably filled the valley or cafion of the Hudson. Portions of Harsimus, Pavonia and Hoboken are also under- laid by modified drift, but in this region the contour of the land (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. ay and the nature of the original soil have been so modified and obscured by streets and buildings, that their original character cannot be determined. | The greater part, indeed, of Harsimus and Pavonia seems to have been underlaid by modified drift, most of which was con- cealed by hills of fine yellowish eolian sand. The northern portion of Payonia, judging from the lmited exposures now to be seen, is composed of true glacial drift. Whenever the soil consists of modified drift, at least when moderately elevated, it forms a porous and highly salubrious substratum. Soils of Molian Sand.—The fine, yellowish, loamy sand already noticed, forms the third division of soils in Hudson County. Along the Newark meadows and Newark Bay, the sand-dunes sometimes extend a long distance inland; on Bergen Neck, the sand covers nearly half the breadth of the upland; at Bergen Point, it is well exposed along the railroad, overlying the red- dish drift, and thinning out gradually as it recedes from Newark Bay. At Constable’s Hook, this yellowish sand occurs again, cover- ing nearly the entire upland; this detached area, separated from Bergen Point by a deep marsh, covers about 200 acres, with an elevation of from 40 to 50 feet, and consists chiefly of glacial drift containing huge boulders, above which rest the eolian sands. ‘There is very likely a reef of rock underneath this island-like area, yet none appears at the surface, or has been reached in a well bored on the southeastern side of the Hook, to a depth of 130 feet. On the sand-dunes, forming the western side of Constable’s Hook, are growing oak, chestnut and beech trees, frequently of large size. The soil on this area is ight and porous, and well adapted for the requirements of the large manufacturing industries located there. At Caven Point, the conditions are the same; and also, as above stated, on the areas farther north, now occupied by Lafayette, Jersey City and Hoboken. At Lafayette, the eolian sands are well shown on the western side of the high knoll at the end of Mill Creek. The sand-hills of Harsimus and Pavo- nia, most of which have now been leveled, were similar. The geological history of the island-like areas that rise above 58 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. the salt-marshes eastward of Bergen Hill, is well illustrated by by Paulus Hook, Harsimus and Pavonia. Beneath this region, especially along its eastern margin, are the reefs of gneiss that at one time formed low islands separated from Bergen Hill by a deep river-channel ; around this nucleus the debris transported from the west by the glaciers, was accumulated and probably filled deeply if not completely the channel of the river. When the glaciers retreated, and the floods from the melting ice came down the Hudson, much of this material was removed, some to distant places and other portions re-deposited as stratified drift. At this time the old channel between Bergen Hill and Paulus Hook was re-excavated, and the Hudson flowed to the sea with a greater flood than at present, having Bergen Hill for its west- ern shore. This western portion was not a main channel, how- ever, as it rejommed the principal stream at the mouth of Mill Creek, and did not flow over the upland area now occupied by Lafayette. While the waters flowed through this course, the sand along the shore was thrown on the beach and was carried inland by the wind, forming sand-dunes spread over the drift beneath. In time, as the Hudson decreased in volume, the western channel was silted up with river mud so as to form salt meadows on which grasses and swamp-loving plants took root and formed by their decay the peat and peat-mud. Soils of Peat and Mud.—Skirting the main upland of Hudson County on the west, are the salt marshes known as the Newark Meadows ; these were formed by the filling in of this portion of the estuary of Newark Bay by silt and mud brought in by the waters. The depth of this accumulation is from ten to fifteen or perhaps twenty feet ; the true rock-bottom, however, lies far below, as is shown by the deep wells in the meadows south of Snake Hill.* In some of these, no rock was reached at a depth of 200 feet; north of Snake Hill the surface of the peat and mud was once covered with a vigorous growth of cedar trees, the stumps and prostrate trunks of which now cover the marsh. : On the eastern side of Bergen Hill, the salt meadows again * Vide Table No. 1. res ee ee or. Te | eee ee ee a ee Se a eee eee [= = ae sf eee ee << — 4 ‘ sa : Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 59 occur. Constable’s Hook is separated from Bergen Point by the southernmost of these areas. Here, in some portions of the Newark Meadows, the surface consists of peat formed of the ‘matted stems and roots of plants, which become more decom- posed and muck-like some feet below. The salt-marsh occurs again southward of Lafayette, filling the aréa between Caven Point and Bergen Hill. Northward of Lafayette, and reaching all the way to the Hudson above Castle Point, is the largest area of salt-meadow east of Bergen Hill. It is like the others already mentioned, in character. Along the Morris Canal, between Lafayette and Harsimus, soundings have been made in the marsh to the depth of 90 to 130 feet without reaching rock-bottom. In one of these sound- ings near the canal bridge on Pacific Avenue, a stream of quick- sand is reported, at the depth of 130 feet, flowing southward with such force as to bend the sounding-tube. On the western edge of the upland forming Harsimus, near the corner of Wayne and Brunswick Streets, a large well has recently been excavated, giviug the following section :— Filling, - - - - - 10—12 feet. Turf (the original surface of the marsh), 2 6 Bluish river-mud, with oyster-shells, pine-cones, drift-wood, etc., - - - 12—14 * Quicksand, - - - - : 6 inches. Reddish mud, - = = - 18 fect. Gravel, - - - - - 5) a On the eastern side of the block in which this section was obtained, and commencing less than 100 feet away, is the rem- nant of a hill of sand and gravel, which still rises some twenty feet above the surface of the marsh, showing the abrupt nature of the shores of the old river-channel that once divided Harsi- mus from Bergen Hill. The same thing is illustrated at the corner of Washington and Warren Streets, where less than four hundred feet from the upland, piles have been driven through peaty mud to the depth of over seventy feet, to form the founda- tion of St. Peter’s church. Other instances might be mentioned, showing that the deposits of drift and sand east of Bergen Hill 60 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. have been deeply eroded by currents of water, the channels of which have since been filled in with mud and peat ; the islands known as Paulus Hook, Harsimus, and Pavonia, are separated from each other and from Communipaw, Bergen Hill and Ho- boken by deep-buried channels of this nature. The Sanitary Influence of the Soils of Hudson County.—The salubrity of a region depends largely on the pervious or im- pervious nature of the soil; the lowering of the consumption death-rate especially, is closely connected with the decrease of water (especially fresh water) in the subsoil. In Salisbury, England, the death-rate from consumption has been lowered one-half by improved drainage. ‘The following conclusions on this important subject are taken from an article by W. Whitaker, in the Geological Magazine for November, 1869. (1) That on pervious soils there is less consumption than on impervious soils. (2) That on high-lying pervious soils there is less consump- tion than on flat pervious soils. (3) That on sloping impervious soils, there is less consumption than on flat impervious soils. (4) Wetness of soils is the great cause of consumption. With these considerations in mind, I have arranged the soils of Hudson County as follows, referring especially to their per- vious or impervious character. When considered geographic- ally, the conditions of elevation, drainage, etc., come in, and greatly modify these general laws when applied to limited areas. First.—The most desirable soils, from a sanitary point of view, are those formed of modified drift, composed of strata of sand, gravel and boulders. Second.—The second best soils are those composed of the fine yellowish loamy sand frequently mentioned on the preceding pages. Third.—Next in the series comes the soil formed of reddish drift, which covers so large an area in Hudson County; if well drained, this soil has but few objectionable features ; these in- crease rapidly, however, as drainage is obstructed. When un- derlaid by a porous and elevated rocky substratum, as at Castle meee (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 61 Point, no more salubrious soil could be desired. The conclu- sion naturally follows, that in order to make the 11,000 acres of retentive and badly drained soil on the top of Bergen Hill, where upwards of 60,000 people have their homes, as salubrious and desirable for a city, as the identical soil occurring at Castle Point, the proper course is to secure a more complete drainage. Fourth.—In this class we place the salt marshes, for even these, owing to the rapid increase of population, are built upon ; sometimes the marsh is filled in with garbage containing decay- ing organic substances, which for a long time at least must render such artificial soils unhealthy. CONCLUSION. The salt marshes form the last of the series of geological for- mations occurring in this county; these are still in process of accumulation, and form the top of the grouped section of the rocks of Hudson County, (Plate II). Prof. Cook in the ‘‘Geology of New Jersey,” 1868, presents many interesting facts indicating that a slow subsidence of the land is now in progress along the Atlantic border of New Jersey. As I have been unable to glean any new facts in relation to this subject in Hudson County, I can only refer the reader to the above report for information in this regard. At many places on the knolls along Newark and New York Bays, accumulations of oyster-shells may be observed: these at first sight might lead to the conclusion that the land had suffered asubsidence and a re-elevation in very recent times. ‘These shell-heaps, however, are due to other causes, and in some cases at least, were accumulated by the aborigines, before the coming of the Europeans. On the knoll at the mouth of Mill Creek northeast of Lafayette, one of these accumulations of oyster- shells or ‘‘kjyokken-middings,’ may be seen; with the broken oyster-shells, a foot below the surface, I found the shells of land- snails ; the occurrence of stone implements and human bones in the same association was reported by the gardeners familiar with the locality. At Constable’s Hook and along the shore of Newark Bay, similar shell-heaps are very common. Erosion and Denudation.—From the table at the end of this article, showing the depth of wells and of soundings in the salt 62 (reoloyy of Hudson County, New Jersey. meadows that have reached the underlying rock, we are en- abled in a general way to sketch the topography of Hudson County as it would appear if the accumulation of superficial ma- terial were removed. A map or model constructed from such data would enable us to determine the depth to which river- channels have been eroded and also aid us in calculating the amount of denudation that the general surface of the county has suffered. From the wells bored in the estuary of Newark Bay, now toa great extent occupied by salt marshes, we find that the rock in~ some places is more than two hundred feet below the surface .of the marsh. At Hackensack, 18 miles north of the present out- let of the bay, the rock is 104 feet below the surface. Although no soundings have been obtained from the southern end of the bay, yet it is fair to assume that here is the greatest. depth, probably not less than 300 fect. As the surface of the marsh is 150 or 200 feet below the present level of Bergen Hill, and nearly as much lower than the ridge of Triassic rocks bound- it on the west, the total depth that the valley of the Hackensack has been excavated cannot be less than between 350 and 500 feet. To calculate the amount of sandstone and shale that has been removed to form the estuary from Hackensack southward, we have only to compute the contents of a solid 18 miles long, 4 miles wide, and 350 to 500 feet thick; this will give, taking the lowest average of thickness, about 77 cubic miles as the amount of material removed. At one point between Jersey City and Lafayette—east of Ber- gen Hill—soundings to the depth of 130 feet failed to reach the bed-rock. The reef of serpentine at Long Dock, Jersey City, is buried to the depth of 179 feet. The following borings, some of them reaching to the bed-rock, are taken from the table at the end of this essay ; excepting those in the Harlem River, they are all on the margins of the old channels and do not show their real depth :— Hudson River, foot of 23d St., 250 ft. from the eastern building line of the river street, - 175 ft. to rock. Hudson River, foot of Bethune St., line of the river street, - - - - 196 ‘* rock not reached. Hudson River, pier 60 (old ie. y, 20 ft. W. of bulkhead line, - - - - - 175 ‘* to bed-rock. (Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 63 East River, N. Y. Tower of Brooklyn Buds, 107.4 ft. to bed-rock. “ Brooklyn Tower, Ae SSin oH og pier 41, N. Y., 200 feet from the building line of South St., nse a ti i a pier 18, of ss 60 BC Harlem River at High Bridge, center of river, OM ifs as Madison Av. Bridge, ‘ e Tay 28 i As shown on the Coast Survey charts of New York harbor, the water in the Hudson off Castle Point is - 50— 65 ft. deep. In the East River, W. of Blackwell’s Island, 107 aN a Ww us at Hell Gate, - - 121 peat coe sé me Ward’s Island, Sa iO: po yee “< New York Harbor, - - - 60— 80 ** the Narrows, - = - - 60—116 “« << “« the Kill Von Kull, - - = = eb See ** Arthur’s Kill, = - - - QO ==. Bd) 6 oo 6 8S These soundings give the present depth of the water; how much the old channels have been filled with drift and silt is un- ‘known. All this shows, as has been graphically described by Prof. J. 8. Newberry,* that these channels are old river-beds, eroded when the continent stood at least 500 feet above its pre- sent level. 4 The true margin of the continent lies at a distance of 80 miles outside of the present mouth of the Hudson ; over this region, once a broad littoral plain, the Hudson flowed after passing New York and Staten Island. ‘The position of this submerged river-bed is shown on the Coast Suryey charts by the line of deep soundings extending seaward from New York harbor. During this time of continental elevation, previous to the glacial period, the deep cafion-like valley of the Hudson was excavated, and also a great part of the broad, deep valleys of the Hackensack and Passaic ; these streams perhaps, after uniting, flowed through Arthur’s Kill and received the Raritan as a tributary. As we have already seen, there is no evidence that Hudson County has been submerged since the close of the Triassic age ; during all the vast time recorded in other regions by the deposits * The Geol. Hist. of New York Island. Popular Science Monthly, 1878. 64 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. of the Cretaceous and Tertiary ages, Hudson County stood above the sea and was exposed to sub-aerial denudation, and also felt the full force of the cold and ice of the Glacial epoch. How- ever slowly the wind, rain and frost may act in degrading rocks, yet we know that during the flight of ages they accomplish mighty results; what these changes were in this region we of course desire to know. ‘The only way to determine the amount of material removed from the general surface of Hudson County, is by studying the character and position of the rocks that remain. As we have already seen, the most remarkable fact in connection with the Triassic rocks in New Jersey is the uniformity of their dip to the northwestward ; from the nature of the excavation that produced Newark Bay, leaving a ridge on the western side 150 feet high, composed of stratified rocks inclined 15° N. W., it is evident that larger portions of the sandstone and shale have been removed, than are necessary to fill the valley. Considering this county alone, if we carry out the strata to the position which their dip and broken edges, indicate that they once occupied, we find that the thickness of sandstone and shale once covering Bergen Hill could not have been less than 7,000 or 8,000 feet. If no faults exist in this region, we cannot arrive at any other conclusion than that many thousands of feet of stratified rock have been removed from the general surface of the county. Drainage and Reclamation of Land.—Geology has but little to do with agriculture in Hudson County; but on all questions as to the reclamation of land, building of piers, construction of railroads, etc., 1t has a direct and important bearing. In other countries, immense areas have been reclaimed from the sea by diking ; this same process has been followed in some portions of New Jersey with marked success. In Hudson County, however, little has been done in this direction ; some portions of the Newark Meadows have been thus reclaimed, but no very promising results have followed. One reason for the lack of success is the nature of the swamp-deposits, which con- sist of undecomposed vegetable matter to so great a depth that they are useless for agricultural purposes. The most important reclaimed areas are along the Hudson ; here the plan has been to fill in the swamps up to a level above Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 60 tide. Knowing the nature of these old channels, and their great depth, this is evidently a most laborious and expensive un- dertaking. The want of some comprehensive plan both for the drainage of the upland and for the reclamation of the salt meadows and shallow areas along New York Bay, has long been felt; thus far this work has been carried on without system, and consequently much of it is ineffectual. A plan which meets all the requirements of the case, and is based directly on the geological structure of the county, was proposed some years since by Mr. L. B. Ward, C. E., of Jersey City. The reef of Archean rocks which appears at Hoboken, and again along the eastern edge of Jersey City, extends southward along the line marked out by Ellis’s, Bedloe’s, Oyster and Rob- bins’s Reef islands; then it curves westward to meet Constable’s Hook. West of this line of reefs, the water is shallow, as shown on the Coast Survey charts. In some places, the rocky bottom is exposed at low tide. Directly east of the same line, the bot- tom falls away sharply, and forms the true cafion-like channel of the Hudson, with from twenty to sixty feet of water. The plan proposed is to complete the work marked out by nature, and by building a sea-wall along the old reef, from Jersey City to Constable’s Hook, to shut out the tide, and by means of pumps, as is now done for a large part of London, to remove the water from the inclosed area, and thus render it suit- able for occupation. The drainage of the marshes west of Jersey City and Hoboken, and the interception of the surface water ~ and drainage from Bergen Hill, are to be secured by a large sewer built along the base of the hill, and leading into the lower part of the area reclaimed. This comprehensive plan, which we are only able to sketch in the barest outline, has for its object not only the addition of 5,100 acres to the habitable area of Hudson County, and that, too, where space is most needed, but also, what is still more valuable, the proper drainage of large areas now densely in- habited. Such a plan, if carried out, will secure for the county an addition of several miles of piers to her already crowded water-front, and furnish over five thousand acres for railroad depots, storehouses, manufactories, etc. Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 66 UBATTING W MOIGSIG|-pues Pot UL popu UBATIING Y MOIGSIG, “SULMOT.10A0 TA “bse ‘NoMIABME “Gg 1OF polog ‘6ST ‘A (Le8T) ‘ST IOA “Mor sweMIpg ‘ospy ‘ST “dX ‘Ni Jo ‘Joos uo jyroday s.1oyVey ‘13. 78 JO Wdop oy} ye pouteyqo osye SBM PUB ‘QdvJINS 9} 0} A[AvaM aSOI Iaye@M JUaT[eoXA “YOOL surporos qnoyyia doop 4F 00% 9q 09 1 poytod a1 oy mM‘ Atamorq ay Aq,,‘Auedurop SUIZBIL) ,, ‘plgay + ‘“peuwopurqge Mou ‘yuvpunqe pue poos 103¥M (,,-10]B AA SOO ITAL Ayp *X “N Atddns 03 soruvdurog pV AA OF woIsodo1g vB 10} yuu -OSIJIOAPY,,) “oryduind suearypng ® MOIQSIQ ‘sivok Ce TOF posn jou :pesn sv suo, se poos ponuty -U0d puv ddVJAINS oT} 07 ATIvOU osOT IOJVM SUL “WRIGE ‘ERP 0} SNOTA -aid oAq AUOYUW 10F potoq T[aA\ “SMUVNA dU} LOF QE8T noqe patog CureIp “UL F TAN - ‘91098 ”? ‘pod -doqs SBA SULIOG ot} pus suojspurs pot poyono} [Ta MOOU AHL AO daLOVUVHO ‘oyid -UIN} YIVMON OY] vou | » ‘ON JO 'M OffUr 90 Jnogy| g¢ “‘SMOPROUL yIvMoN wo ‘oyrduiny ye -MON JO opis “G at} uO ‘e ‘syisodop duivms uy] — 08 ON JO ‘AA Alu suo ynoqy| F 08 “Avo peesoura FG Be ‘ARID p, [09-UsV¥ ‘purg ie ‘Avyo AvIS- Ys _ “YSIVUL YIVMO NT BL ‘ouy ‘pursyome uQ ‘soyiduiny yaweMoN OL “3a *S}00.4 pur o[[taojeg Fo uonounl pues pnur YSIey{) FOL | FOT UIIABT, OFMHsSOPL ,, 9} FW] “YSIVUL YIRMIN UQ “YY : ‘Uf N JOS 006 pus ‘T ” OOT | OOT | ON FO M “S 3F000'T OGY) & “YSlvUL ye “MON UQ ‘eyrIduany A719 ‘Avyo Aosiof puv YyAVMaN UO pure ‘ued- “prey ‘To , JOPlLG Yousuoayovyy ,, FO -AB.LO ‘PUBS Menon) OOT | OOT |pUe soa rvou YsrvUE oy} UT] T “Joo “joo u ! “MOOU AHL TAOAYV | “YOOy | “HLaaq On “NOILYOOT ‘ON TVIAALVIN Hldaq | IY LO, ‘f ‘N “OO NOSGOH NI SONIGNOOS CNV STTHM HO HLIdHd DNIMOHS AIAVL 67 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. OSL TLg 668 8 Ooh Vth OFS & 6 GL 0'$9—8 '§¢ ecg 9 789 6 9 LES & 69 Vc9¥ CP OLE VT 679 87S 9cs §& V 9G 8°97 LG G LV L&& i ieenl “m10}}0q prey 07 *KelO 03 pnur 03 19JVM YSIPT 19j8M Wolf] Iowa OTT ‘S[IvJop 19y}O OU +" 0G YB YOoI Sut -YOval aLoY YUNS Sv pojLodod st [TOM W ‘Aayooy, pue Avg ‘sasseyy Aq yuout -9}8IG “4F GST Noge yw pouopueqe dram AIT} INQ “TTI BV d10q 0} ELST Jog’ soley epvur oiaM sydu19}}v va.1T ‘Aoqooy, “Ay Aq yuourayeyg “que -punqe pur ‘a[qeieped “ooms 1038, ‘AdYOOT, “8 “WW “ Aq yusutayRI ‘47 GST Fo dep ot}. 7" Y.cno.1y] possed a1OM SLOP[NOd pus ‘oUITy 0} JUIT} WOIF SSUIIOG asey} [Be Ul puUNoF SVM O[VYS Pol VsOOT “Ul Z 4SoL oy} “WIP “Ul 9ST9 “ON “TLET UL petod o10M § PUB “QB *) “9 “SON STTO AN ‘potpovad JOU 390% ‘S.LOP[NOG, Aq poeddoys surg *), pure g “SON UI SB poulvyqo 109v AA "1 ‘ON UL SB ‘To -AGISG SULIvAq-10} -GM poovel Wot} pues ‘yoor Apues aed ‘ul 9 Ysno.iqy pessed Wy 081 IV [OABIG SULA --10} UM poeyovar pur ‘(gfopmmoq) sory ‘VIZ YOOL Yono.1yy 06 a) pa -Yorat possed 4f O8T IV JON cL 0 O61 cst O8T “IOATL OY} JO YURq “| UO T ‘ON “ede 3F OOT ‘ospraiq YU YU Udod 24) Jo § 00% OUI] B UO TOATI Yousua -YOv}] oY} Ss0.10v sourpunog ‘AT yoRsuoyorpyy WIM yootg s,Aiteg Jo uonounl ay} 3B “YY OMG ey} Iwan “OVSUoO OVP] oY} 1vou ‘Sy10 AA O}oIpnog 8,Aoq 7V 4] ‘Yo uueg pur peor yurld yiwmoNy Weest -joq AVMpIUL “YY yoesue “OVE JO “MA 3925 000'S ‘8 pur J, ‘9 ‘SON SB 07R)}S0 OLURG *), PUB 9 “SON SB 9}BISO BIBS 9 ‘ON SB 0}R4S9 OUTRG “ISP, yporsuaxoryy JO “AA “IF 000‘T jnoqe ‘peor yuvyd x.1BA0 NT ‘Mid “N ‘§ JO 038389 aT} TO a5 OL Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 68 ‘OST “E “6L8T 10J ‘ff N Jo ydoy ‘Joop ‘Jaas, opy DAOGV JF YSZ OF OL WOAZ st punows OL “LUST UL ‘SLopoor AA 3 Wosarty} “We Aq AQIPBOOT SIT] avom MMODp jnd oto s[[oMm WoAltp oAg AyUOAT, ‘661 ‘d ‘6L8T toy“ N Jo ‘doy ‘Joos ‘WOTJONAJSUOD FO ssooord UT [ITS [[O AA ‘SsOu PLOFpUVG “I Aq poystumny uoneuaojzuy ral “4G UOSIOpUdFT ,, 8 CL “ay Aostoe,, J CT “398 200, 9 CB “49 YnowuU0T, ,, Gi ‘VQ YoIMsuntg ,, F 09 OAV YIVMON FV S oll ‘g puv T yoq Lemp & 40g ‘AtojeuIID' Df FO “A 3FOOL T ‘Spaqlvypry VL f “AIA ‘yaoddns uy 8 poystuiny pur ‘purs 981809 9] 0} WMOP WOATIp a1 sdoys oq} JO WorVpunoy oy} LOZ sopid oy, ‘SPIVINY] Vf All WorT UO VULAOFUT 619 CéP cé st 469 6 GP GEL GL & 9 POV Ore It V9 6 6G 696 OF S LG LhY PCs 6 ‘poyovor yoot dey, 00% ‘QUO}SpuLsS Ajeys poy G —— CB “904s -purs , ‘Ye OT ‘toyvm Jo qydoq ‘daojs S80] ‘Opis "No ‘“.0& JO o[our Ue 1B IJ IVS SOSII OLOYS OY} ‘OOpug Wolf] 38 LOATI 9} FO apis “G 942 UC ‘qUBpUNe 19JVM ‘SoTOUT g 910g ‘g]90}9 “4H ‘q Wop UOly -BULIOJUT ‘“Opl} sAOGB “YF Q soVJang MOT ‘apt VAOG’ 4F G VORFING ‘PMT «Opl} 9AOQB “4F 6 9OBJING ‘PLAT Opt) PAOGK “YF OT vovFng PLAT «Oph eAoqe “YF g soVjang ‘F09 ‘d ‘piq7y ‘apy aaoqe ‘e099 ‘d ‘pir “aply aaoqe “Vy py; aoBpzANG ‘Vy 6 oOBJAING 709 A ‘par “apy eroqe “yf g soVjANg ‘e09 ‘d ar0doyy SLoIVJ “Oply OAOGV “YF ET oovzang ‘e09 ‘d Q10doy7 8,10T VIE ‘aptly eaoqe yf g ‘durwaMs plo ue uy ‘Opl} GAOGe “YF TT sovpING ‘e09 d ‘par 66LT UT snp TOM UeBWVyURL,, oY} SB UMOTYT ‘709 “d “aodaxy SA1YIVJ ‘Opl} eAoge yz g sovzMg ‘4-02 JO yydep oy} 4B JoUUvYD ot} UL peyovat jou yooyy “SsTOuy) “SsTouy) ‘poatPovad YOO.r ONT). 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Jo opis “g oy} uo uUlseq ‘(yavde ‘4J QOL jynoqr) sstous surA[.op ‘OSPIIG [VIJUIH JO 4svo “YF -UN tf} 0} SSUIPUNOS SUIMOT[OF OIL], 8-21] SS-ST\O0F PUL] B UO “OAL tWopey) 19 ‘AO ‘orlog ‘ad “VW Aq poysta 6'e ‘AUIO -INJ MOVULIOFUT ‘plOOAL TRUS L6 ‘purg Ajasopo B popfatd ‘uaals auO att} rar “‘pnut 4Z0g ‘OAV US JO oul] TOI] JF OOT OGR ‘surpunos JoyouUY ‘SL VW *10}8 MA Q'ep jot} Ul “OAT, Woptey] otf} UT] 99 ‘Ajpidea suodoop 10}eM ory ISP oY} WAZ LOIAB “Opry YSTy MOTAG “IF C% 01 ST WoAT ST oor omy = : ISP OY} JO apis Yoo UO “jj QOS LO ‘osplig wed s,quioovyy yy! oO = 3 Bi al * » 2 F 2 3 7 ta Se a eS ee ee ee ee Pe Se. wea < | ee at aie nat =, — as re eee eS: ee | ens o eS ee ee ‘AT[OARIS 10 Lu03s : S9svd ySOUL UT : |aB ,.“Yoo-peq ,, oq} 0} Jxou ‘SiO -ABl SOMO] OT], « PUW-YIOp,, Jo “yop, yoo = ‘WI GPP ‘toy Jo tydaq ‘OHRID /OE 0F OT FO ATR 66°06 |ST'96 Tr ON WId} 98 a 4 CP's] ‘1eyewm Jo YWdoq “OUBI|-OSN ‘OAV] BS}SAL |Qs"eg [BLL ‘LE ‘ON Jol] eg & IW IS'L “toyem Jo yydoqg ‘oyuRry)|“eseyy [[® AAOCY |6L°SOL|9P TTT ‘PE “GE ‘SON “Jo Jol) F8 es 45 0°9 “10}8M Jo yIdeG ‘9}TURLD)| ‘SGOT puB 19}}RUT |99°86 ISL O0T 8% ‘ON Jog) eg RS ‘IF 66'E ‘toyem Jo yydoq, ‘ayTURIL) a[qejosoa SurUrE, |e9°OPT|LE FEL Ve ON Fld) 68 = ‘109 ‘toyem Jo Tydoq! ‘OURL)|- U0 SOTMPJOULOS | TG "CT |OT SET TE “ON Ald) 18 5 ‘VW SPP ‘toyem Jo qdoq, ‘oPUBI) PUB ‘STTOYS TIM [68 "GST |6E GOT ‘8 ON Ield| 08 => ‘VY LZ 0 ‘107vM Jo ydeq ‘aque | A[[BVUOISvID0 ‘939 |eg"ee [EG FE ‘GT ‘ON Told) 64 = ‘WF 69°, ‘teyem Jo ydeq ‘ojruvas ontaeAg)‘steppnog ‘Joarrs |eg'oe |e9'FE GL ON Jad] gy, = Le, ‘tayem jo yjdeq) ‘oytuevis oyueXgjoug pure os1v0d [egee Sele "6 ‘ON old! p), S VW Pr ty ‘tajyem Jo ujdeqd ‘ayrtuets onruadg ‘Avjo ‘pues ‘pnu ipE ‘0g |eG Pe “9 ‘ON JOIg) 9), = 49 P ‘toyem Fo yYdeq ‘O}TURI) JO SUOT}VIO}[V Pot |2) ST |1G0'SS | *G ‘ON dold) ey S 4 OLS “10}eM Jo YYdaq ‘ayiurry|-va AoA Jo samt |gg'eg |66'G? ‘T ‘ON Jeld) Fy sS “19}UM MO] UBOT WOIZ syuoTU | -as B YSnoIg] pa | 49 [NOG Fo oul] sat < -aansvoyy “AUO “AN ‘syooq jo | -ssed soul1oq osoty, -plmMq oy} FO plwVanysvo 47 00S 2 juewmjivdeq ot} Aq poysruiny sea —o— > SSUTLOq-1a1d 9Soq} OF WOLULLOFUT | ‘SUGIG UMA IV | > it “‘TOABIYD) | = 6IT ‘AUT | Ss ‘OUIVS OU} ULOTT WOTVULIOFUT O8 “3 ‘STjays | ‘uospnyy < ‘A1OM9IIG “M 4) AQ ‘EEQT Ul potog -1938S0 UJIM pny 00@ (ey wo ‘“Surpury [LUST] ey, ‘709 ‘dA Gaodoyy s.oyyeyy ‘PARIS PALF] (ee TT ‘ommqsureyyi Ma VV) Sl 6°81 ‘ARTO lO’ T noqe ‘ued-paeyy 9'L ‘ARTO as ‘pues aS ‘syed OGnd ima’ ‘Puy = JO JUOWTIedeq AY) WoAy UOTeUIOFUT OF VY ‘19}8 AA. CLG ‘OSPIIq JO pUd ‘NY WV 101g} Ty, Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. ‘roid ot} JO pus oY} WIT IT 8 6°86 8 OL 8 67 96 ‘OUTT PROT YN otf} FO “YH IF ST 878 8 V6rL oT We QUyE rh “Uf OGL 70 paeyovat ,0U d90" coulT peoyynqd 9} JO “M “I 06 CCOL © 62 nas ‘ord oy} JO puo oY} WOTF “YF OT 619. €96 (Gtr |LLT FOL |G'&8 68 =|GT 698 |86rF \€08 8g 9°89 Gy 9&6 698 |V&h |LPE [48 EL |VkG |9 ST 108 |& ee |86 TTL |€Lr |8°&% VIS |679 |L8t 82 L9r |L06 |9 96 108 (66° €61 |69 6 0S 16 |6 66 608 |S&h |L66 (6% 9 \9TE |F CS 9938 1902 VTE |9§ T19 |766 (|Z TS V Gh 09 #|€ TL |LP 9°87 ‘9T |9G& Tg |¢9 ‘Sy O68 T ‘MOU "ZT ON Jd |@'ep |2°6 L&E G67 |L6E |966 (96 ‘MOU ‘TT ON Jd [897 LTT j\1'Se C07 ‘6L |G OL gG ‘mou “8 ON WIq 697 |GTI |9°¢s 69F |FLE |666 (9S op |Lé 6 GV Gory |GIe js LT $ Toy ilé V IV COV j406 |97 671 L0G 66 CLV 6GE |96G 69 V 96 “Sled 94} JO Spulo oy} ye ssuliog "YOOX ‘pnta | ‘10}eM ‘yoo. |sj1sodep] “pnur | “1938 0} 40] MOT 0} JaMo7T | Hog AO] yydeq utes yydeq UvoW IQ WILE JO Joos ,, 49 WIOF FO OOF, ‘IQ TSE JO J0oF ,, IS WIS FO J00F ,, 49 pe fo yooy ,, ‘plo ‘09 “ON, 4Q ounyjog Jo 400; ,, JOO TG “ONE sn ‘plo ‘“6F “ON 5, (Ug Meu) GP ‘ON ,, (GG MoU) ep ON ,, (6G MOU) 68 “ON ,, (LG MOT) 88 ‘ON ,, \Fe MoU) Ge ‘ON ,, (0% MoU) Of “ON ,, (QT Mou) 8% ON ., (GI Mou) FZ “ON ,, ‘ON oe) ‘ON »» “ON ey) ‘ON > “ON eS (@ mou) T ‘ON Jog ‘(GT pus IT] Woomjoq ‘Mou) QT (TT paw QL Woomyoq “Mou) ‘(6 pue 8 UWooMjoq ‘MoU) ‘(9 Mou) 9 St "490.198 JOATI otf JO aul] SUIpTing "gq ey} Wo.lz +77 OGZ Ssuliog 48 ‘SUGIG WAAL Nosaayy 78 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. i Note by the Editor. [It is regretted, that owing to the large amount of space required, it has proved impossible to give the detailed sections, carefully prepared by the author of this paper, from official records of the several pier-borings on the East and North Rivers. In the case of the latter, it will be seen from the Table that the ‘‘lower deposits” lying between the ‘‘dock mud” and the bed-rock, and reaching in some cases a thickness of 100 feet, disappear almost wholly in the short distance westward to the ends of the piers. Where these end-borings are recorded, the mud, with a few slight ex- ceptions, rests directly upon the rock-bottom ; while the miscellaneous succession of sand, clay, gravel, boulders, shells, vegetable matter, etc., found under the piers on both rivers, nearer to the shore, is wanting. ‘ In the case of the piers above 23d Street, it was not practicable to judge clearly of the line of demarcation between the modern mud and the older deposits below, so that these columns are left blank. Attention may be called, also, to the transverse valleys indicated by the increasing depth of the bed-rock on both sides of the city (in passing northward from the Battery’, culminating at pier 24 E. R., and the foot of 60th Street, N. R. The pre-glacial rock-surface of Manhattan Island needs fuller and further illustration for its proper determination, and all facts of this kind should be carefully recorded and preserved. ] O MINERALS OF THE TRAP." The following is a list of the mineral species and varieties discovered up to the present time at Bergen Hill. ZEOLITES. Thomsonite, Natrolite,* Analcite,* Chabazite,+ Gmelinite,t Stilbite,* Spheerostilbite,+ Heulandite. + OruER SruicaTes. Apophyllite,* Prehnite,* Laumontite,* Pectolite,* Datolite ;*Orthoclase, Hornblende, Byssolite,+ Augite; Prochlorite; Sphene.+ OTHER Spectres. Calcite,* Siderite;+ Quartz,+ Hyalite;+ Pyrite, Chalco- pyrite,+ Blende,+ Galenite. + Besides these may be mentioned some species that are but imperfectly determined as yet; among these are the chloritic mineral that has been called Diabantite, and the ‘‘Brown pectolite,” which appears to be a mag- nesian alteration of pectolite. ; Those species followed by a* are abundant and yield choice specimens: those marked with a + are found but rarely and in small quantities. MINERALS OF THE SERPENTINE. The serpentine ridge of Hoboken has long been celebrated as a locality for magnesian minerals. The following species are thence obtained. Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 19 Es Brucite, Nemalite, * Marmolite,* Magnesite (compact porcellanous),* _ Hydromagnesite, * Aragonite,+ Dolomite, Chromite. + _ The species Brucite and Dolomite are probably exhausted, as little or * none of either has been obtained for years past. The same signs are used __as for the trap minerals. 4 ae APSR ND IX: 4 Notes from L. B. Ward’s pamphlet on the Soil, Contour and a Drainage of Hudson County. TOPOGRAPHICAL DIvisIONS OF THE COUNTY. East of Hackensack River : Square Miles. Original upland, - - - 21.5 Made land on Hudson River Bel N. Y. Bay, - 1.0 Meadows east of Bergen Hill, - - - 2.5 Sa awest. << GC -- - - 8.4 —— 33.4 x West of Hackensack River : Upland, - - - - - - 4.4 Meadow, - = - = = = 6.8 . — 11.2 Total area of land (about), - - - 44.6 y Recapitulation : Total upland in the county, - - - 25.9 «meadow ‘“ “ - - - Wee ‘made land ‘“‘ a - - - 1.0 “ water surface within the county lines, in Newark Bay, Passaic and Hackensack Rivers, - - > - - 6.4 «* area included in Hudson County (about), 51.0 — Extent of shore line, - Se Z - - ie miles. _ Extreme length of County, - - - - - 143 miles. _ Greatest width, = - = - - = 7 miles. Least width (about), ; : - - - 4 mile. q Land reclaimed between Paulus Hook and Hoboken, - 900 acres. e fe in New York Bay, east of Communipaw, 200 acres. 80 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. ’ DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION IN 1875. On uplands, east of Bergen Hill, - - - - 66,000 “« marsh, oS eG - - - : 23,000 ““ summit and western slope of Bergen Hill, : - 67,000 “‘ uplands, west of Bergen Hill, - - - - 7,000 Population of entire County, - - - - 163,000 Population living on trap estimated as follows : On Bergen Neck, - - - - 6,000 In Jersey City, - - - 44 000 In northern portion of County, - - 15,000 65,000 On Triassic sandstone (west of Bergen Hill), - - 7,000 On drift, eolean sand, etc., in Jersey City, E - 55,000 ‘* oo oe in Hoboken, - - 11,000 “« marsh in Jersey City (85 acres), : - - 9,000 «« —«* ~~ Hoboken (140 acres), - - - 14,000 The mean range of the tide in the waters of Hudson County is as follows :— , New York Harbor, - eh aa ys - - 4.4 feet. Newark Bay, - aie tia se - - 4.8 feet. Passaic River, at Newark, = - - - 5.0 feet. _ Vor. I, N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Prats 2. GENERALIZED SECTION, HUDSON COUNTY, NEW JERSEY. Shell Heaps. Sand Dunes. HuMAN Prriop. Peat and Mud. Drift. QUATERNARY. i Red Shale and Sandstone. Trap Rock. TRIASSIC. Slates with Trap. Red Shale and Sandstone. Z| Jusperoid. < NaS Serpentine. Gneiss. ARCH EAN. "7 oh nf pat ASIN ING AS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOLUME 2, 1880. The ‘‘Annals’ published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of Natural History, are continued under the above name by the New York _ __ Acabemy or Sciences, beginning with the year 1877. It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number to consist of not less than thirty-two pages (octavo), with or without plates. Price of Yearly Subscription, Two Dollars, payable in advance. The Academy has for sale a number of back volumes of the Annals of the i: Lyceum, each containing twelve or more numbers ; the price per volume is ____ $4.00 with uncolored plates. or $5.00 with colored plates. — s The Academy has established a Publication Fund, contributors to which, * in the sum of $100 at one time. are entitled to all the Scientific Publications of the Academy appearing subsequently to the payment of their contri- See butions. — . 5 oa Communications should be addressed to * Pror. D. S: MARTIN, aa : Chairman of Publication Committee, 236 West Fourth St. fe * Or to é : . JOHN H. HINTON, M.D., a A _ Treasurer, 41 West Thirty-second St. : > é me \ Jz= Any person residing within the United States, on sending the amount of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive the numbers as they appear, without further cost. Agents in London, TRuBNER & Co. In Leipsic, Bern. Hermann. Special agents for the Academy, NATURALISTS’ AGENCY, Salem, Mass. rals (Second Paper). By H. Carriero ’ I.—The Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Ozone, by the Action of Moist Phosphorus AuBert R. Leeps, (with Plate I)..----..----. 1V.—The Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. > CRUSSEIL, (with Plate IM) je a= 2c2ee = Heres LATE a SEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. ED FOR THE ACADEMY, eel , 34 Carmine Srrwer, WY. Nos. 3 and 4. *. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 1880, President. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. Vice-}residents. T. EGGLESTON. BENJ. N. MARTIN. Goyresponding Secretany. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secretany, OLIVER P. HUBBARD. Greasurey JOHN H. HINTON. foibrarian, LOUIS ELSBERG. @ommittee of Publication. DANIEL 8, MARTIN. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. GEO. N. LAWRENCH. ALBERT R. LEEDS. W. P. TROWBRIDGE. Zine Desilverization. 81 V.—On Zine Desilverization, BY T. EGLESTON, PH. D. Read January 7th. 1878. (and revised to June, 1880). When lead ores contain silver, or when it occurs in other ores in districts where lead ores can be had, they are smelted alone or together and the silver afterwards separated from the lead. ‘The silver is either extracted on the spot or more gen- erally sent to the East to be separated there. ‘This material is called ‘base bullion,” a very improper name, since it is not bul- lion at all, but only argeutiferous or work-lead; and although this term is current in the West, it should not be adopted in techni- cal literature. The furnaces in which the ores are smelted are almost invariably shaft-furnaces, as the ores are very silicious, and the process used is that of direct or indirect precipitation. The furnaces are usually water-jacketed and generally provided with Arendt’s tap. ‘The works which treat these ores are situ- ated for the most part in Nevada, Utah and Colorado. A few furnaces have been erected in the East, as at St. Louis, Mans- field Valley near Pittsburgh, and in the vicinity of New York ; but, as a general thing, it will not pay to transport the ores which come from all the Western territories, to the Kast, when there are works competing for them at home, unless they are exceedingly rich, or there is some special business reason why they should be treated here. It is not proposed to give a description of the process of smelt- ing, Which in many respects is peculiar to the West, but only some peculiarities with regard to a few of the works from which the details of desilverization have been taken. ‘These are the Germania Works, Salt Lake, the works of the St. Louis Smelt- ing and Refining Company, at Cheltenham, Mo., and those of the Pennsylvania Lead Co., at Mansfield Valley, near Pitts- burgh, Penn. The Western works treat ores which come principally from 82 Line Desilverization. Utah. They are earthy carbonates and sulphates, with some galena, such as are found in Little Cottonwood and Bingham Cafions. From the former place, they contain from 10 to 40 per cent. of lead, from 70 to 150 oz. of silver, 1 to 3 oz. of antimony, and a trace of arsenic and zinc. From Bingham Cafion they contain 30 to 50 per cent. of lead, and 10 to 20 oz. of silver. ‘The copper in these ores is sometimes as high as 6 per cent. They are transported on an average 2,000 miles, some of them being brought from New Mexico. Some argenti- ferous blende from Colorado contains 450 oz. of silver, 10 per cent. of lead, and 20 per cent. of zinc. When these ores have been dressed, they are made into bricks for treatment in the shaft-furnace. The Utah ores are made the base of the treat- ment. The works also treat argentiferous lead from all parts of the country. The ore arriving at the works is sampled and assayed. When it is purchased at the mine, it is sampled by the agent of the company, and assayed at the works. When the assay of the agent’s sample does not agree with that of the mine-owners, they send a sample. At the Wyandotte works, the sample is taken very simply. The ore, crushed fine,* is spread ‘evenly over an iron plate, and the sampler, Fig. 1,+ which is simply two iron bars bent at right angles and riveted together, is put down on it, separating the ore into four parts ; opposite parts are taken, a new pile made and divided in the same way, and so on until the sample is complete. The argentiferous lead is assayed on a sample taken from the top and bottom of both ends of the pig, and the mean ‘of the two is accepted as the value of the whole. Hach lot of ore and lead is kept separate as far as possible. ‘They are not, however, treated separately, as this would involve too much trouble and expense. The separation is only made so as to treat material of about the same value together, or to add it, in the treatment, as different parts of the process require it. ‘Ihe owners are either paid for it at prices for the gold, silver and lead, which are fixed by the works or regulated by the market, or the metals when separated are delivered to the owner, a certain sum being deducted for expenses, loss and profit. * Engineering, London, Eng., Vol. 22, p. 495. + Engineering, Vol. 22 p. 200. + The figures illustrating this paper are nnmbered consecutively on Plates III to XIII. Zine Desilverization. 83 The Germania Works are situated at Flack’s Station, on the Utah Southern R. R., six miles from Salt Lake City. They treat silver-lead and also ores which they purchase in the open market. They have one shaft-furnace, and their capacity is 40 tons of argentiferous lead and 3 tons of ore a day. The value of the product of the works in copper and lead counted together, silver, and gold, in 1874, was $1,350,000, in about the propor- tions of 5, 6, 2. The coke used comes from Connellsville, and costs $30.00 per ton. At Cheltenham, there are two shaft-furnaces, but only one is in blast at a time. The furnace is 10 feet high, 4 fect 6 inches in diameter at the throat, and 3 feet 6 inches at the hearth. The hearth is 2 feet deep from the tuyeres down. ‘The water- jacket is made of wrought iron, riveted together in three parts, and extends four feet above the tuyeres. In the west it is fre- quently made of cast iron. The fore-hearth is 6 inches wide. The furnace has three tuyeres, 24 inches in diameter. The cinder-tap is composed of a small graphite crucible with the bottom knocked out. The blast is produced by a Sturtevant’s blower. 'The pressure is from } tojofa pound of mercury. The blast conduit is arranged to discharge into the air, whenever the work of the furnace has to be stopped for a short time for repairs. The bins for holding the lead and material contain- ing it, are on the level of the bottom of the furnace. Access to the charging-level is by an inclined plane. The fusion-bed is made up of— Little Cottonwood Ore, - - Car-loads. 10 to 25 Argentiferous Zinc Blende, from Colorado, - - 10 per cent. Mill cinder, - = - - - - 20 UG Lead slag, containing 3 to 8 per cent. of Lead, - SSO pase Coke is added, amounting to about 9 per cent. of the charge of ore. When there isa considerable amount of sulphur, 2 to 3 per cent. of old iron is added. The fusion-bed is spread out over a surface containing 200 square feet, to the depth of 11 inches; so arranged, it consists, commencing on the top, with scrap-iron when there is sulphur, of 37% wheelbarrows of lead slag, - - 7,500 lbs. 50 ss of ore, - - 10,000 << ' 374 oe of lead slag, - - 7,000 “ 25 ae of tap cinders, - - 5,000 << 84 Zinc Desilverization. The coke either comes from Connellsville or is Illinois gas- coke. ‘The Connellsville coke weighs 40 lbs. to the bushel. It costs at Cheltenham $10.00 per ton, and the gas-coke costs 7 cents per bushel of 40 Ibs. The lead contains about } per cent. of arsenic and antimony. When it is very impure. it is polled directly after it is drawn from the tap-hole. Ordinarily it is cast into pigs. The furnace is tapped into a brasqued basin, und the lead cast. from there: three to four tappings are made in 24 hours. i The copper is concentrated in an iron matte, which contains a little silver and gold. It forms about 5 per cent, of the total product of the works, and is worked at the end of a campaign, when it is treated with pyrites and concentrated to 50 per cent. of copper. Sometimes a little speisse is formed, when the ore contains considerable arsenic. The slag varies between a singulo and a bi-silicate. The slag- pot is hung directiy under the axle of the buggy, and holds from 650 to 700 lbs. The slag-buggy, Fig. 2, is so arranged that the line of its axis runs through the center of the pot near its top. The pot is caught by three hooks, which prevent it from tipping. It is always white-washed before it is used. When full, it is al- lowed to remain until the outside chills for about half an inch, and is then caught by the buggy and dumped. ‘To prevent the pot from falling off when dumped, a projection is placed on the front of the pot, which is caught in the hook on the curved part of the axle. Fifteen tons of slag are produced in the treatment of 10 tons of ore. Of this amount, 30 per cent. is poor and is thrown away ; the rest is re-treated. The number of workmen required for a twelve-hour shift is, below, one founder and two helpers, who wheel away the slag, and above, one charger and one helper. A campaign with water-backs lasts as long as a supply of ore can be had. If the supply was constant, it would probably be about six weeks. With a sandstone lining, it lasts about the same time ; but repairs to the furnace are much more expensive. With a brick lining, it lasts only three weeks. In blowing out, slag is used exclusively, to clean the furnace as much as possible. The amount of ore treated at Cheltenham is from 500 to 600 tons per month. From 5 to 6 tons per day of lead, containing . j Me . 4 . ' iy ee ed a een ee ee Zine Desilverization. 85 on an avcrage 250 oz. of silver, are produced. ‘The prices paid for the silver in the ore in June, 1874, were for medium ore, containing 25 per cent. of lead, for 100 oz. ore, $0.834 per oz. ; for 200 oz. ore, $1.01; for 500 oz. ore, $1.17. In addition, the freight to the works is paid, if it does not exceed $15.00 per ton. One dollar per ton additional is paid for each unit of lead above 25 per cent. and deducted in the same way. At the works of the Pennsylvania Lead Company, ores are no » longer treated, but silver lead and material containing silver are purchased from all parts of the United States. The shaft-fur- nace is used both for smelting the crasses and for the concentra- tion of the copper matte which is produced from the residues con- taining copper. As the construction of this furnace is interest- ing from several points of view, a drawing of it is given in Fig. 3. It has charging-doors at two different levels, the lower one, A, being used for the matte, and the upper, B, for the ordinary crasses. There are thus two furnaces of different heights in the same structure. The lower opening is bricked up, and its charging-floor is not used while the crasses are being charged. When sufficient matte has accumulated, the lower charging-door, A, is opened. The upper part of the furnace then serves only as a chimney. The lower part of the furnace is built of common brick, laid up in ordinary mortar by a common mason, up to the mantel, which is about eight feet from the ground. Just under the mantel, a pipe with jets at short dis- tances throws water over the surface of the outside of the brick, the excess of which is caught in atrough. This water keeps the furnace cool. The bricks melt off to within three or four inches of the outside and then remain at this thickness. There are four tuyeres, two at the back and one on each side. Three of these are of phosphor bronze, and one of iron, which answers just as well as the bronze. To put the furnace into blast, the hearth is filled with coal or coke, and lighted, and this is kept up for three days, or until the brasque is red hot. The blast is, during this time, blown in through the Arendt’s tap, C. When the furnace is ready, this is filled with a plug of wood in which a hole is bored. The whole crucible of the furnace is then filled with melted lead. The furnace itself is then charged with one-third coke. When the 86 Zinc Desilverization. furnace is lighted all around, and is bright at the tuyeres, they are withdrawn and plugged up. ‘The first charge consists of one scoop of puddle cinder of about twenty pounds, and ten scoops of coke of about eighteen pounds each. 'Thenext charges are made with only half the normal charge, until the furnace is two-thirds full; the last one-third is put in at the normal charge. When the furnace is full, the blast is turned on, and the furnace starts at once: with a dark top and in a normal condition. A - campaign lasts thirteen months. The concentration of the cop- per matte takes place on the top of the melted lead. They are enriched up to not less than 40 percent. ‘They contain 25 to 40 ounces of silver, and are sold to Baltimore. The process of desilverization, as conducted in the works at Cheltenham, Salt Lake, and Mansfield Valley, consists of— 1. Softening the lead. 2. Incorporation of the zinc and separation of the zine scum. 3. Refining the desilverized lead. 4, Treatment of the zine scum. The object of the desilverization, as performed in these works, is to concentrate all the silver into a very small quantity of an alloy of zinc and lead, so rich that the lead resulting from its dis- tillation will contain 8 to 12 per cent. of silver, and to leave behind in the kettles, lead which will contain not over 5 grammes of silver to the 100 kilogrammes, and not more than 0:5 to 0.75 per cent.of zinc, and be pure enough to make white lead, and hence command the highest market price. 1. Softening the Lead.—As the argentiferous lead comes from all sections of the country, and contains a number of impurities in variable proportions, it must be refined or softened before it can be desilverized. The furnace used for this purpose is called the softening-furnace, in most of the works. At the Germania Works it is called the A furnace. It is a large reverberatory, with a cast or tank iron basin, into which the hearth is built. The object of this iron basin is to have a furnace so cool that if the lead goes down into the hearth it will chill, or if the furnace is very hot it willbe caught. The larger the furnace the better. Made of cast iron, its size is limited; made of —— ——— ~~ es) ae ae ne et en a ee ee a ee ee eee 2) Ww 4 Zine Desilverization. ‘ tank iron, there does not appear to-be any reason why it should not be of double the size, except the uncertainty of being able to purchase the supply of lead to work continuously. With an uncertain supply, it is better to multiply furnaces, as a small amount can be better and more economically treated in a small than in a large furnace. There is a point, however, be- yond which it will not be profitable to increase the size, and this _ will be the quantity that can be held by the kettles. The limit inthe kettles will evidently be that at which a man can no longer work the kettle conveniently. The fireplace at Cheltenham is 2 feet 3 inches wide and 5 feet 6 ‘inches long. ‘The grate is 12 inches below the bridge; the bridge is 2 feet 2 inches below the roof, 1 foot 6 inches above the hearth, and 2 feet 10 inches wide. The hearth is made of a cast iron basin which is 15 feet 5 inches long, 9 feet 6 inches wide in the middle, and 5 feet 3 inches at each end, 2 feet 4 inches deep, and Ljinches thick. It weighs 8 tons, and is calculated to hold 25 tons of lead. At Cheltenham, the pan forming the bottom of the fur- nace is cast in one piece. At the Germania works, it is cast in three pieces and bolted together. This latter method is the chea p- est; but if any of the bolts become loosened, there will be a loss of lead, to avoid which the works at Cheltenham had the pan made - inonecasting. At the Pennsylvania Lead Works, the pan is made of tank iron about one quarter of an inch thick, which is riveted. It is now proposed to water-jacket all of these furnaces, which _ will both reduce the quantity of repairs to be made to them, and shorten the time spent upon them. The doors of this furnace are counterpoised with pigs of lead, so that they can be very easily moved. They are beveled and fit into a slot, so that when they are closed and luted they are hermetically sealed. ~The hearth proper is built on the iron pan bottom. It is made of fire-brick laid in the form of an inverted arch, placed on a bed of coke next the pan, which is covered with - a layer of brasque. ‘The side walls resting on it bear against . a projections on the rim of the sides of the pan. These precautions are necessary in all iron pan hearths, to prevent the rising of the _ hearth from the lead penetrating below it, and breaking it up. _ Notwithstanding all the precautions taken against it, this accident, which causes ‘great inconvenience and loss, happens CO 8 Zine Desilverization. so often that,at the Germania Works, holes are now bored in the angles of the bottom and sides of the pan, so that the lead cannot collect. ‘Che flowing lead warns the men, before any serious accident has happened, that it is time to make repairs. These furnaces should all be placed at the highest point of the works, so that the lead and other products may descend by gravity from one furnace to the other. The usual charge at the Germania and Cheltenham works is from 22 to 24 tons, depending on the purity of the lead. In the works of the Pennsylvania Lead Co., at Mansfield Valley, they sometimes charge as much as 25 to 26 tons, the charge depending on the quantity of crasses that the lead makes. It is always made at Cheltenham so as to produce about 20 tons at the end of the operation, or a quantity sufficient to completely fill one kettle. ~ When the furnace is hot, the whole charge melts in about two hours. It remains in the furnace from 6 to 18 or even 24 hours, depending on the work in the kettles, which must be kept full. During this time it is kept at a low heat, and air is allowed to have free access to the surface of the metal. The operation of softening consists in melting at a very low temperature, the object of which is to separate the copper by liquation, as it is much less fusible than lead. ‘The scums con- taining the copper are drawn with a tool made of birchwood, so as not to contaminate the lead, as would be the case if an iron tool was used. It is always necessary to endeavor to remove all the copper, whether gold is present or not. The gases in the fur- nace are oxidizing, and crasses containing the oxides of the foreign metals rise to the surface. At the end of three hours the temperature is raised to a dull red heat. The bath is kept for twelve to fifteen hours if necessary, at the same tem- perature, and frequently rabbled to bring the impurities to the surface. If the lead contains from 3 to 4 per cent. of impurities, the crasses are only drawn as they form, but if more impure, a steam-jet blast is discharged directly into the bath to produce the oxidation, and the crasses removed several times; but if the lead is moderately pure, the crasses are drawn but once, which will generally be at the end of six to seven hours. The first crasses will amount to from 1.5 per cent. to 2.5 per cent. of the charge, and are taken off at the end of from 5 to 7 Zine Desilverization. 89 hours. Before drawing them, they are mixed with coal on top of the melted charge, to reduce any oxide of lead, and are then drawn; and if they form again they are removed. When they no longer form, the furnace is cooled gradually, but 1s kept above the melting-point of lead. | The crasses are drawn from the working-door and are collected in a bin, where they are allowed to accumulate until there is enough to work. ~. When litharge commences to form, the crasses are no longer drawn, but are left in the furnace after the lead has been tapped. In refining the next charge, they give up their oxygen to more easily oxidized metals, and thus help to separate them from the lead. Quick-lime is usually added as soon as they commence to form, to keep the litharges from cutting. Sometimes all the impurities have been removed at the end of - 12 hours or less, but the charge in the furnace must stand until the desilverizing kettles are ready. ‘This is done by simply shut- ting the dampers, and adding only just enough fuel to the fire place to keep the charge melted; but as all the compounds of arsenic and antimony are very fusible, the softening must be kept up as long as these form With acharge of 26 tons, at the Pennsylvania Lead Works, from 24} to 25; tons of softened lead remain in the furnace. It often happens that the charge is ready for tapping, but the desilverizing pots are in use ; so that the lead is kept in the fur- nace at the melting point until the pots are free. It is cheaper, even if the lead is extremely pure, to keep it melted in the furnace during the time necessary, rather than to cast it and ~re-melt it. At Cheltenham, the tap-hole opens into a deep but narrow trough lined with brasque, from which the lead is syphoned off with a Steitz syphon, Fig. 6. The brasque is made of { clay and ; coke-dust. It is made as dry as it can be stamped, and is then carefully shaped and cut down to make the arch leading into the furnace. When the kettles are ready, the furnace is _ tapped. The tapping-spout is very large, and during the time - of casting exposes a large surface to oxidation, thus increasing the losses in lead. If the furnace was sufficiently high above the pot, the lead could be tapped by a gutter directly into the 90) Line Desilverization. kettles. The contract is always made to haye the kettles cast bottom down. At the Germania Works, the tapping is very inconveniently done through an iron pipe, 40 feet long and 5 inches in diameter, with holes cut into it at intervals to facilitate the removal of dross which might clog the pipe. It is necessary to heat the whole length of this pipe, to prevent the lead from chilling. This is done with coals suspended in pieces of sheet-iron under it; but there must be a shield between the fire and the pipe to keep the latter from cracking. As the softening-furnace is always above the kettles, it would seem easy to run the lead into the kettles by gravity, in a trough of some kind. ‘The distance, however, would have to be short, or there would be danger of the lead becoming too cool. At the Pennsylvania Lead Works, there are three of these softening- furnaces, each one having three desilverizing kettles. At the Germania Works, there are two, with five kettles each; at Cheltenham, one, with three kettles. The crasses from the softening-furnace are first liquated, to remove any excess of lead they may contain. At the Germania Works, this was formerly done in a reverberatory liquation-furnace of peculiar construction. The hearth was 3 feet deep ; 18 inches above it a set of grate-bars was placed; the skimmings were placed on these, and the carcasses remained there while the lead flowed through. The first crasses drawn contain most of the copper. | They are always kept separate from the others. The carcasses from the lquation-furnace are put through the blast-furnace at the end of a campaign, with pyrites, in order to concentrate the copper in a matte. They produce some hard lead, which is treated with the lead of the other crasses. At the Germania Works, a copper matte is produced which contains 20 per cent. of copper, 20 to 25 oz. of silver, and a slag containing 10 oz. of silver. The matte is concentrated to 40 per cent. of copper, and is sold. The assays of three of these concentrated samples contained— No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Silver, 113.54 oz. 88. oz. 94.66 oz. Gold, 1.18 1.02 1.02 From the dust-chambers connected with this furnace, only a Line Desilverization. 9] small amount of material is collected, and this very near the furnace. It contains only from 8 to 4 oz. of silver. The other - erasses are treated in a reverberatory furnace. The materials being at first only partially reduced, the first lead which flows carries most of the silver and is put to one side. The charge is then completely reduced. The product is a very hard lead, which is allowed to accumulate until there is enough to make a charge in the softening-furnace. If the ores contain a very large amount of antimony, there will be two or three sets of crasses after those containing copper have been removed, which will be mostly very impure litharges. The lead produced from them is a compound of arsenic and an- timony, which is not refined, but sold as hard metal. The loss in lead in softening is about 2) per cent. 2. Incorporation of the Zinc, and Separation of the Zinc Scums.—To effect the desilverization, there are at Cheltenham three kettles, set in a triangle, at Mansfield Valley a series of three kettles set in a row, and at the Germania Works, a series of five, set as shown in Vig. 4, the first two holding 20 tons each; the next two, 7 tons, and the last, 4 tons. These kettles are sct in masonry, with a fire-place underneath them. ‘The furnace is tapped into the two upper ones alternately. The upper kettles at Mansfield hold 23 tons. The upper kettles at Cheltenham weigh 4,700 lbs. each, and cost between $400 and ~ $500 each. They are 6 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 3 feet deep. At the Germania Works, the discharge-spout is cast on the bottom of the kettles, and is constantly breaking. At Mans- field, the middle one has a spout at the bottom, which com- municates with the third and smallest. These kettles are filled with melted lead from the softening-furnaces. When they are full, they are heated up to the melting-point of zinc, which takes about one hour. It is important that the heat should be high enough to melt the zinc readily. The kettle is so large that _ there is but little danger of over-heating. When the tempera- ture is at the right point, the zinc is added. At the Germania Works and at Mansfield, the zinc is thrown in or laid on the top of the lead, and incorporated as it melts. At Cheltenham, it is placed in an iron cage, which is let down to the bottom of the pot. - The amount of zinc to be added will generally be about one pound 92 Zinc Desilverization. for every 5} oz. of silver. ‘This will usually amount to between 250 and 550 lbs. to each kettle. In general, with ores varying from 100 to 300 oz. of silver, 1.4 to 3 per cent. of zinc is added. It is not all added at once, but sometimes in two and sometimes in three additions, the proportions being determined by assay in each case. ‘These additions should be so regulated as to make the richest possible alloy at first, in order to shorten the process as much as practicable, and to diminish the liability to oxidation when it is liquated. At Mansfield, the lead contains from 50 to 400 ounces of sil- ver. To this, from one and one-tenth to two per cent. of zine is added, in four additions. The zinc is thrown in on the top of the melted lead, and then is stirred into it by a tool, five by ten inches, with along handle. After the first addition, it is stirred for half an hour. The scum is then allowed to rise and cool, until there is a ring of 3; inches around the outside. It is then skimmed with a perforated skimmer until the lead is bright. The other additions are made in the same way. At the Germania works, for a charge containing 60 oz. of silver and 3 oz. of gold, 1.85 per cent. of zinc was added. Fora charge containing 140 oz. of silver, and 3.8 oz. of gold, 2.3 per cent. of zinc was used. Of this, 0.5 was added in the first addi- tion, 0.4 in the second, and 0.1 in the third. For a charge containing 350 oz., 2.6 per cent. of zinc was used. The following Table, prepared by Mr. A. V. WEtssz, of the Germania Works, gives the amount of zinc used in two charges. t Total weight] Silver contained in| Gold contained in Example.} of softened |; grammes to the grammesto the | Zinc used. lead. 1000 kilos. 1000 kilos. | | No. 1. | 402.442 Ibs. 4300. | 125. | 2.3 per ct. | 2.6 per ct. No. 2. eee | 4256.7 | 127 45 To be sure of lead at 5 grammes from lead containing 1,000 to 1,400 ounces of silver, at least 1; per cent. of zinc must be ee eT ae ‘ 7 \. ; a Y q v h “l P A . a Zine Desilverization. 93 added. Pure zine is no longer used for all these additions. The second, third and fourth scums of a previous operation, which are not very rich in silver, are used for the first and some- times for the second addition, thus greatly reducing the amount of zine required for the operation. When the lead is very poor in silver, the first addition is used several times, in order to make it as rich as possible. The object of dividing the additions is to arrive, as quickly as may be, at the highest percentage of silver, and to get an alloy so rich that there will be little lability to oxidation in the subsequent liquation, thus shortening and cheap- ening the process. The amount to be added in the first charge j _ will depend on the amount of copper in the lead. If it contains but a small amount of copper and some gold, 100 lbs. are added, at Cheltenham. If there is much copper, more zinc must be added to bring out the copper, as most of the copper comes off with the first crasses. If gold is present in large proportion, the quantity of zinc must be increased, since all the gold comes off with the first scums. If no gold is present, two-thirds of the charge of zinc necessary for the whole operation may be added in the first charge. It is then stirred from one-half to three-quarters of an hour with a flat spatula, which is 17 inches in diameter, attached to a piece of guas-tubing 6 feet long. The temperature during this time is kept above the melting-point of zinc. The tool is made to work from the sides toward the center, with a downward motion at the same time. When the zine is thoroughly incorporated, the fire is drawn, and the ket- tle allowed to cool until the zine alloy, which contains the silver, rises and floats on the top of the melted lead. This time de- pends on the heat of the metal, and on the season of the year. ~ In summer, it is four hours; in winter, only two. The skim- mings are taken off in perforated ladles, and put into one of the smaller kettles. These first skimmings are carefully separated from the rest, if the lead contains either much gold or much copper, or both. At Cheltenham, the skimmings from the first addition of zinc are charged into a small kettle between the two large ones. At the Germania works, kettles Nos. 1 and 2 are skimmed into Nos. 3 and 4. If the skimmings come from the first addition of zinc, they are partially liquated in Nos. 3 and 4, and trans- 94 Linc Desilverization. ferred to No. 5, where the liquation is completed. All the lead in Nos. 3 and 41s then put back into Nos. 1 and 2, ready to receive the second addition of zinc. The skimmings from the 2d, 3d, and 4th additions of zinc are not liquated, but are used over again. The amount of labor required is one man to each kettle. The kettle is left until it is full, and is then fired up and partially liquated, which takes about an hour. ‘The kettle must not be heated too hot in this hquation, for there would be danger of oxidizing the zinc, in which case the silver would go back to the lead. The lead separated in liquation is put back into the large kettle, No. 1, before the second addition of zinc. At Mansfield, all the skimmings except the first, which con- tains copper and may contain gold, are ladled into the middle kettle, which is kept heated, and are liquated at once, the lead flowing into No. 3. The lead which collects there is put back into No. 1 with the next charge of lead. At Cheltenham, the zinc skimmings are taken from kettle No. 1, and liquated in No. 2. While the second addition of zinc is being made, the liquated lead is removed to No. 3. The six tons in No. 3 are put back into No. 1, after the second addition of zine. The lead remaining in the kettle after the first skimming should not contain more than 20 oz. ‘The zine for the second and third skimmings is not liquated, but used in the next opera- tions. The skimming is made into the adjacent kettle. After making an assay of the melted lead, to ascertain what is re- — quired, the next addition of zinc is made, and the skimming continued about the same time. After the second skimming, there should not be more than 10 to 15 oz. of silver remaining. An addition is made, if the assay shows it to be necessary. ‘The last two charges are placed partly on top of the melted lead and partly in the cage. It is then stirred for three-quarters of an hour and left to cool down. The skimmings are liquated as before. The lead contains from one to one and a half ounces of silver. A new addition of zinc of about 100 Ibs. is made. At Cheltenham, there is not more than one-sixth of an ounce of silver remaining when the lead is tapped into the refining furnace. Frequently, the last skimmngs are too poor in silver to admit of treating. They are put to one side, and form Zinc Destlverization. 95 either a part or the whole of the first additions of zinc in the next kettle. . At Mansfield, poor lead is not tapped if it contams more than one-tenth of an ounce of silver to one ton, and the merchant pig assays 0.075 to 0.15 oz. When the Germania works were first built, the Flack process was used. The liquated zinc skimmings were charged in a blast furnace with a very basic slag, and small pressure of blast. The result was rich lead, anda rich slag. In the condensation chambers, a very impure oxide of zinc was collected, which was but a small part of that actually charged in the furnace. As the use of this process occasioned a loss of from $18,000 to $25,000 a year in zinc, it was abandoned, and the Faber du Faur furnace was introduced in its place. . It is always best to use good zinc for the separation. An attempt was made at the Chicago Silver Smelting and Refining Works, to economize in this direction by using scrap zine; but it was found that the lead, after its use, sometimes contained as high as 18 oz. to the ton, and the attempt had to be aban- _ doned. The following statement of several charges at the Germania works is made by the Superintendent, Mr. A. V. Wetssu: ! Bi No. 1. No. 2. _ No. of lbs. charged in the softening-furnace, - - 41,614 40,120 No. of grammes” of silver, - - - - 5,700 1,980 a gold, - 110 10 First addition of zinc, from ad and 3d additions ofa pre- vious operation, in lbs., - - 4,000 3,000 *Grammes of silver in lead after first addition, - 1,860 1,160 Second addition of zinc in lbs., - - 600 600 _ *Grammes of silver in lead after the second Addbiion. 20 30 Yhird addition of zinc in lbs., - 80 125 * Grammes of silver in lea after the third adidiiaien. trace. 6 The following tables were prepared by Mr, E. F. Euricu, of the Pennsylvania Lead Co. : 1 Mining Commissioners’ Report for 1875. * The grammes are given per thousand kilogrammes. 96 On Zinc Desilverization, DESILVERIZATION. No: 1 Wy Nos? Quantity of work lead charged in the kettle - 87,294 lbs. Taken off ; ‘“‘ Schlicker” (cuprous oxide) - a ay 8 Pure work lead, - - - - - 83,797 lbs, 62,895 Ibs. Silver contained, - = = - 6,305.6 oz. 6,165.9 oz. Quantity of zinc added: : = = - 1,760 lbs. 1,260 lbs. Weight of skimmings after liquation, - - 9,525 ‘© | 6,862 * at Abstrick ” from dezincation of poor lead, = 17,810" *2 | 3ho00R Oxides and metallic lead from the market kettle, - 1,000 “ 700 ‘< Lead from liquation of zinc-crust, - - - 808 “ Market lead, - - - - - - 67,104 ‘“* 153,420 “ At Cheltenham, the liquated skimmings, still soft, are thrown on iron gratings from 1 to 1} inches apart, and pushed through in order to reduce it to pieces of small size, which can be more conveniently introduced into the retort. In most of the works, it is thrown upon an iron plate in front of the kettle, and in order to break it up, is rapidly moved about with a rake, and if necessary cut up with a shovel, so that the pieces are about the size of a hickory nut. 3. Refining the Desilverized Lead.—The lead in kettle No. 1, which contains { per cent. of zinc, no matter what the heat is, or how much zinc is added, must be refined, to separate the zine and get it ready for the market. This operation is one of refining ; but in the West it is known under the name of ‘‘cal- cination.” This is done in a furnace with a cast or tank iron bottom, like the softening-furnace, holding about 20 tons. At Mansfield Valley, the bottom is made of tank-iron. Fig. 4 represents the furnace used at the Germania works. The one used at Cheltenham is essentially the same; it is a little larger, but the dimensions vary only a few inches. The fire- place is 2 feet 3 inches wide and 4 feet 5 inches long. The bridge is eight inches below the roof on the fire-place, and eleven inches on the hearth side. It is 2 feet 10 inches wide, 3 feet 6 inches long, and 2 feet above the hearth. ~The hearth is 13 feet 4 inches long, and 7 feet 3 inches wide in the middle, and 3 feet 6 inches wide, both at the fire-bridge and the flue. It is * No. 1 is lead taken directly from the shift furnace, which has not been softened. No, 2 is softened lead. Linc Desilverization. 97 here made of one casting; at the Germania Works it is cast in three pieces, as shown in the section A-B, Fig. 5. The arch is 2 feet 9 inches above the floor of the laboratory. It has three openings, 4 inches square, in the fire-bridge, and two on its side, for the introduction of air. The charge remains in this furnace from 18 to 24 hours. The surface is constantly exposed to the air entering the furnace by the air-holes at the bridge. At the end of the first half of the time that the charge is to re- main in the furnace, the bath is skimmed. The skimmings amount to from one to one and a half tons. They contain from 45 to 50 per cent. of lead, and most of the zinc and other re- maining impurities. The charge is rabbled, after the oxides have been removed, but any others which form are allowed to remain until the furnace is tapped into the polling-kettle, which is usually about twenty hours after the charge is made, and are then polled. At Mansfield Valley, the refining is done in twelve hours. The lead is not polled, but is cast into pigs directly from the furnace. At Chelienham, the polling-kettle is placed at the flue end of the furnace. The lead flows into a deep cast-iron channel lined with brasque, from which it is syphoned off. The top of the kettle is about six feet from the floor. Directly in front of the kettle, and about two feet below the floor-level, there is a sunken track upon which a car is run, the top of which comes up to the level of the floor. The car is about six feet wide, and receives the pigs and carries them to the store- house. There is a space of four feet between the car and the furnace. The polling is done in eight hours. The wood is held at the bottom of the kettle by a crutch, Fig. 7 The same apparatus is used at the Germania works, except that instead of the crutch, the bars are straight and pointed, and holes are bored in the wood to receive them. Short sticks of green wood are used, but to insure a plentiful escape of steam, all the wood for this purpose is kept soaking in a pool of water. Three or exceptionally four pollings are made, the number de- pending on the quality of the lead ; each polling lasts about an hour, so that the furnace is ready to receive a new charge as soon as the one refined in the softening-furnace is desilverized. The 98 Zinc Desilverization. weight of the dross collected from a kettle at the Germania works, which was polled four times, is given below. ist Polling, - - - 1,301 lbs. 2d 2 - - - - Sot 3d ace - : - = Gl 4th “* - - - - 290 “ d Total, 3,143 “ The crasses from all the pollings, usually amounting to from 1000 to 2100 lbs., are melted, at the Germania works, in a rever- beratory furnace, and make common soft lead. ‘The crasses from the softening-furnace, however, make silver lead, which is treat- ed by zinc. ‘Those from refining, which at the Germania works is called calcination, make soft lead of ordinary quality. The following table gives the quantity of skimmings for examples Nos. 1 and 2, page 95. From refining-furnace, ~~ - - - - 81,700 lbs. Polling-kettle, - : = 2 - 20302 hee Quantity of work lead taken from the polling-kettle, 76.25 per ct. Silver contained in the market lead, per 1000 kilogrammes, 6 grammes. The polling-kettles at Cheltenham, are emptied by the Steitz eyphon, ifig. 6. ‘To do this, it is first heated and turned over, so that the funnel-cnd, a, is uppermost. ‘The stop-cock, 0, is then turned, and melted Jead poured into the funnel. It is then turned over into the furnace. ‘The joints of this syphon are made of gas-pipe fittings. At first 1t- was supposed to be neces- sary to make them perfectly air-tight, but afterward it was found that when six or eight threads of the screw were run into the the fitting, the jot was lead-tight, and perfectly flexible. ‘The end of the syphon, where it turns down to discharge the lead, is a simple gas-pipe fitting, to which a handle, c¢, is attached for convenience of moving. While the lead is not being cast, the vertical arm is simply turned up. When the car with the pig- moulds is ready, the syphon is turned down, being held by the handle, and is moved from one pig-mould to the other in suc- cession, as they are filled with lead. The joint is long enough to allow of filling all the moulds without moving the car. 4. Treatment of Zine Scums.—The zinc for the liquation, after eing reduced to small pieces, is distilled. This is done in __ | a Zine Desilverization. 99 graphite retorts in fixed furnaces, as was formerly the case at Bloomfield and Cheltenham, or in Faber du Faum’s tilting © furnace. At the Germania works, the Flack process was formerly used, but this was abandoned, and they now charge all the zinc scums in a shaft-furnace with the drosses from refining and ores of all kinds. The result of this treatment is a rich silver lead, but the grcater part of the zinc is lost. From a metallurgical standpoint, this treatment is very cbjectionable, and should not be imitated ; but the commercial conditions in Utah are so peculiar that it has proved financially successful. owing probably to the great skill with which the process is managed; for a bad process well conducted may sometimes be made successful. In almost every other establishment in the country, the zinc scums are retorted. ‘The retorts used at Bloomfield, N. J., Philadel- phia, Cheltenham, and the Germania works, are shown in Figs. 8,9, and 11. ‘They vary but little in different works, and gene- rally are {inch thick on the sides and nearly twice that on the bottom ; the neck is 7 inches long and the body of the retort is 2 feet. The diameter at the extremity of the neck is 5) inches, but where it joins the body it is 8 inches. The body in its widest part is 14 inches, but it is only 9 inches at the end. These retorts are made of New Jersey clay and chamotte with 25 per cent. of graphite. They were formerly one of the largest items of cost in the conduct of the operation. One of the first furnaces used for the distillation of the zinc, was invented by Mr. W. M. Brodie, and has been constructed in several works. It consists of a large chamber, in which six retorts are placed in two levels, as shown in Fig. 8. ‘These are heated by a fire-place, 2 feet 10 inches long and 16 inches wide, with cast-iron grate-bars, which is blown by a forced blast which enters the ash-pit at c, having first been heated in the two hot- air pipes which are placed in compartments above and behind the furnace. The retorts are protected frm the direct action of the fire by the arches, d. The het escapes by the fluesabove the retort-chamber, passes into the chamber above, down at the back, and out of the furnace by an underground flue. ‘The re- torts are the ordinary graphite retorts, holding from 450 to 500 lbs., so that the furnace would hold from 2,600 to 3,000 lbs. of 100 Zine Desilverization. alloy ata time. Each retort has a condenser, h, attached to it, and in front of it a charging-table, f, covered with cast-iron. It is necessary to remove the condenser, as in the other furnaces, to clean the retort. The furnace is tapped on the back side, at é, from holes ; of an inch in diameter, bored through the bottom of the retort, into moulds placed on the iron ledge, g. If the material charged is clean, the time required for an oper- ation is 12 hours. If it is not, it may require as much as 24 hours, depending on the quality of the material charged. One man does the work of the six retorts. The amount of fuel re- quired is one ton of coal for one ton of alloy. ‘The results do not differ materially from the other furnaces, except that the operation is longer. They were constructed in the now abandon- ed works at Bloomfield, N. J., and in the works of Messrs. Tatham, in Philadelphia. The following tables of the results of the working of this furnace have been prepared for me by Mr. C. Kirchoff, Jr., who had charge of these furnaces while they were working :— Table of charges in the Brodie furnace. eens ue eee ne rae aM No. of 12 hrs, (Hauated in| “Gg: tiation. rich | charges. ~ | kettle. charcoal lead. No, 19 9,916 22.000 6 8,681 65 fe hee 17 | 18,656 26,000 6 | 10,862) 66 Peay 21 19,944 ition l 3 14,511 60 cog 26 | 19,6221 ie Sr 19,015| 78 Stel 26 27,324 } 20,000 28,738, 73 aH 10 28 21,114} 11,927 with hot air 28 17,300} 14,902 832 Mixed with copper scum. Ist scum at first kept separate, but not afterwards. Four retorts were still good. A barrow contains about four bushels. 14 anthracite and 4% bituminous. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 yielded 4,049 lbs. of zinc regained. Ct Bee Gd Leh Zine Desilverization. — 101 The following table covers five runs: unfortunately the lists do not specify how many retorts were fit for further service at the end of a run: No. of Retorts. I Il II IV V VI ist Run, - 13 i 11 12 9 13 pies 12 109 10 9 12 af 10 og 10 12 7 ee. 12 ig | 12) fae 15 1 7 1B PO ae is | 18 1B The figures give the number of charges made in each retort. At Cheltenham the retorts are set in the furnace, Fig. 9, with the level of the bottom below the mouth, and so inclined that the syphon, Fig. 10, can draw out nearly the whole of the silver lead. Some of it will remain, but this is no disadvantage, as it is not lost. It is collected when the retort is broken. Its presence, however, requires that a reducing temperature should always be kept up in the retort, otherwise litharge would form and the retort be quickly pierced. The furnace is a cube of fire-brick, 3 feet in size, braced in every direction with wrought iron bands 3 inches wide. On the top there is a round hole, /, 10 inches in diameter, for the introduction of the fuel; on the front, is an opening for the neck of the retort, c, and on the back, a square flue, g, leading to the chimney. ‘The retort is introduced from the bottom, The furnace has 12 grate-bars one inch square, and is Supported in front on masonry, 4, built with two steps, each of which is 18 inches high, but vertical behind. The retort is supported on a pillar of brick-work, d, resting on the ground, through which the grate-bars pass. It is thus in the centre of the furnace and is surrounded on all sides by fuel. It costs from $14 to $16 and lasts for 15 to 30 turns. When it breaks, it is not because it is worn out, but because the workmen break it in trying to force off the cinders attached to it. Five of — these furnaces were arranged in a house by themselves, about a hexagonal chimney, and connected with it by the flue, g, 3 feet long. The sixth side of the chimney is occupied by a melt- ing-furnace. Only three of the furnaces are run at a time, the 102 — Zine Desilverization. others being kept in reserve in case of accident or necessary repairs. The fuel used was at first coke, which was given up because the clinkers attached themselves to the retorts. In trying to re- move them, the men constantly broke the retorts by poking them, while the cinder was soft, with iron tools, through the opening for the introduction of fuel. Petroleum was then used with great success, but the furnaces were finally abandoned for Faber du Faur’s furnace. The charge of 380 lbs. of zinc skimmings is introduced with a spoon, immediately after the preceding operation is finished. Two small scoopfuls of small charcoal are added at the same time. The heat is so high that most of the charge melts at once. An allonge, e, Fig. 9, 2 feet long, 4 inches in diameter at the small, and 9 inches at the large end, is then put on and luted. It is partially filled with charcoal. The allonge is covered on the outside with sheet-iron, to protect it against accident. It is sup- ported on a cast-iron shelf, 7, which can be raised or low- ered at will by detaching a bar underneath it. ‘This is necessary to prevent the weight of the allonge breaking the re- tort while the furnace is working. When the charge is drawn, 10. The zinc commences to distil in about three-quarters of an hour. Metallic zinc collects in the condenser. Some blue pow- der and oxide of zinc also form there. The object of the charcoal is to prevent the formation of oxide as much as pos- sible. The zinc is allowed to accumulate, and is drawn from time to time with a spoon into a mould placed in front of the allonge. When the zinc is nearly distilled, a small piece of wood is put into the retort to make a reducing atmosphere, to prevent the formation of litharge, which would pierce the sides, and to form a current of gas from the inside to the outside of the retort. ‘lhe charge of rich silver lead, remaining after the zinc is distilled, is drawn with the iron syphon, Fig. 10—which must.be heated before it is introduced—and the lead is cast into pigs ready for cupellation. Before the invention of the Steitz syphon, the neck of the re- tort, which was necessarily built into the masonry of the furnace, it must be let down so as not to interfere with the syphon, Fig... Zine Desilverization, 103° had to be disengaged while it was at a white heat, before the rich silver lead could be discharged from the furnace. The percentage of breakage was thus greatly increased, so that between the necessity of getting rid of the clinkers on the outside of the retort, and the necessity of disengaging the neck every time it was discharged, the number of retorts broken was very large. The syphon proved to be a complete remedy, but was difficult to use, much more so than the polling-pot syphons. The objection to using these furnaces was not only the breakage of the retorts but the large quantity of fuel they consumed. ‘The Brodie fur- nace, with two tiers of retorts, consumed less than the Chelten- ham furnace, but the retorts were more difficult to manage. The use of petroleum seemed to be a real progress, and the use of gas was proposed, when the invention of the tilting-furnace overcame all difficulties, and it is now almost universally used for this purpose. The general shape of Faber du Faur’s furnace is essentially the same as that at Cheltenham ; but it is suspended on pivots, so that it is capable of rotation by means of a worm attached ot a hand-wheel, as in the American type of the furnace, Fig. 11, or by means of a lever, as in the German type, used in Newark and in Prussia, Fig 12. ‘The furnace is 3 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 11 inches in section, by 3 feet high on the outside, 2 feet 1 inch by 2 feet 3 inches, and 2 feet 9 inches from the grate-bars to the centre of the arch on the inside. There is an opening q ‘11 inches in diameter on the top, for the imtroduction of the fuel, and on the back a flue 6 feet 6 inches leading to. the chimney. ‘There are 12 grate-bars 1 inch square and 2 feet 9 inches long set on edge. The retort is built into the furnace in the same way as at Cheltenham. Fig. 13 gives the proposed plan of the furnaces at Salt Lake, showing the disposition of the eight furnaces, a, with regard to the main chimney, g, and a section across the flue, f At Mans- field Valley, the chimney is at the end of the line of furnaces. The weight of the iron for a furnace is nearly as follows :— 104 Zinc Desilverization. Cast iron box, - - - - - - 1,260 Ibs. Grate-bar bearers, Pots Teer - E - - 306 Two standards, - - eins - - 530 Cast iron, 2,096 Wrought iron bars, 181 The iron-work costs from $150 to $165. The furnace is fired until the retort. gradually arrives at a dull red heat, when a charge of 250 to 400 lbs. of the alloy, broken up while still soft, in order to get it of a suitable size for the charge, and mixed with five to six lbs. of small charcoal, is introduced with a scoop. It is brought to the retorts at Mans- field in a box on wheels, about three by three feet, and a little lower than the mouth of the retort. As soon as the retort is charged, the temperature is gradually raised to a white heat, and when the zine vapors begin to appear, the condenser, made in the same way as that at Cheltenham, is put on. At Mansfield, they use for a condenser a retort, No. 100, with the bottom broken out, and a hole punched in the side to discharge the zinc. A piece of common stove-pipe is attached to the mouth to carry off the flames. | ; The retorts usually last fourteen to fifteen charges, but some have been made which lasted forty-five. As soon as the zine commences to collect, a wagon, containing the moulds for the zine and the support for the condensers, is rolled up against the front of the furnace, which has been entirely free since the charge was introduced. The zinc distils, and is collected in the condenser, and held there by the oxides and blue powder which collect in front, and are used by the workmen to form a dam to hold the zine back. When sufficient has collected it is drawn into the moulds. The total amount collected as metal varies from 45 to 55 per cent., and is used over again. The blue pow- der and oxides amount to from 20 to 30 per cent.; these are sold to the zinc works. Some of the zine is lost by volatilization, and from 0.7 to 1 per cent. retained in the lead. As soon as the amount of zinc escaping appears in small quantity, the lead contains but little zinc ; but as it is desirable to remove, as far as possible, the last traces of it, the heat is kept up, the condenser is removed, and small pieces of wood are put Zinc Desilverization. - 105 into the retort to assist the discharge of the fumes. When no more escape, the furnace is tipped down and the contents of the retort discharged into a lined receiver, and there left until cool enough to be cast into pigs. They generally contain from 2,000 to 3,000 oz. of silver, and not more than from 0.5 to 0.8 per cent of zinc. The retort is now carefully scraped with an iron scraper, to remove any slag or other material adhering to the sides. The amount removed in this way is not large; but it is necessary to keep the retort clean, for if the material was allowed to accu- mulate, it might be difficult to remove it, and there would be a risk of breaking the retorts in doing so. The material so collect- ed, amounting usually to a few pounds, is reduced with the cu- pellation litharges. The unburned charcoal is put back into the retort. When the retort is cleaned, it is turned up partially, and fine charcoal dust, or a piece of wood, thrown in, to make a reducing atmosphere, and prevent the formation of ltharge from the oxidation of the very small quantity of lead attached to the sides of the retort. ‘This precaution is very neces- sary, for if the litharge was allowed to form, it would soon de- stroy the retort. The furnace is now turned up and is ready for a fresh charge. The workmen are obliged to be careful in all these furnaces, that in introducing the coke they do not push too hard on the retort, which is quite soft.’ ‘The fire must be kept at a constant tempe- rature of white heat throughout the operation, which lasts from 8 to 10 hours according to the percentage of zinc inthe alloy. But when the lead contains antimony, it lasts a much longer time. The only precaution required during the operation, is to keep the temperature high enough to prevent the formation of a crust on the surface of the charge. ‘To prevent this, and to know what is going on in the interior of the retort, without removing the condenser, it is probed from time to time to break the crust, for if it should form, an explosion would be hkely to take place. The men can always tell the condition of the heat by looking into the coke-charging hole. It is very necessary that the current of gas should always be out of the retort. The retort should last from 1 to 20 operations on ‘an average, and it is generally broken before it is worn out ; but when much antimony is present in the lead, they last a much 106 Zine Desilverization. shorter time, so that it is always desirable to soften the metal before treating it with zinc. At Chicago, owing to careless management in not carefully cleaning the inside, and outside of the retorts, they lasted for only 9 to 10 operations. When a new retort is necessary, the furnace must be allowed to cool down, the grate-bars are taken out, and the retort intro- duced from the bottom. , The flues leading to the chimney, at Mansfield, are made with flaring sides at the bottom, for 18 inches in hight. ‘The sides of the upper part are vertical and are rounded at the top. Every seven feet, at the bottom, a partition is put in, one-third of the — whole hight of the flue. In the brick flues, which are five feet high, the partitions are put in every eighteen inches, and further apart. In both the iron and brick flues the most dust is caught near the furnace. The dust settles by gravity in these catches, and as there can be no velocity there, owing to the par- titions, it remains there. Short.flues of this construction haye been found to be much more effective than large condensing chambers. The amount of zinc in the skimmings is very variable. If it contained 35 per cent. of zinc, 20 per cent. will be recovered as metallie zine, and 10 per cent. as oxide, which is afterwards re- duced, and 5 per cent. will be lost. This last is either in the lead or volatilized in the different operations. If the skimmings contained only 10 per cent., 3 per cent. will be recovered as metallic zine, 5 per cent. will be recovered as oxide, and 2 per cent. will be lost. No lead or silver is found in the distilled zine. This furnace is a very great improvement on all those in which the retort is fixed, as it necessitates the least amount of work being done on it, and at the same time allows perfect manipula- tion of the furnace. The following table, prepared by Mr. E. F. Euricn, gives the account of two charges in Faber du Faur’s furnace, at Mansfield :—* * Mining Commissioners’ Report for 1875. Zine Desilverization. L107 DISTILLATION OF THE ZINC RICH IN SILVER. No. 1. No. 2. Weight of alloy per ehalge ys 4 lbs. of fine charcoal, - - - 353 Ibs. 353 Ibs. No. of charges, - - - - ul 27 20 No. of distillations i in 24 hours in each retort. es 2 Total amount of liquated zinc-crusts ne ged, 9,525 lbs. 6,362 lbs. Charcoal, - - : - lass 80‘ Result: Rich lead, - Sa Lk = 7,609 <“ iy eppat 1 Metallic scraps, - - aa | 390 ‘* mot weighed. Charcoal with little metal, - - |not weighed. gs Metallic zinc, - - - - 770 Ibs. we Blue powder and oxide, - - |not weighed. G Coke used, in bushels of 40 lIbs., = 410.4 276 Quantity of coke per lbs. of zinc-crust, Une 1.73 M. Faber du Faur has proposed another furnace, shown in Fig. 14, constructed on the tilting principle, and destined to receive a charge of one ton at atime. The retort, 7, is made of fire-clay, lined on the inside with graphite. It is 6 feet 6 inches long on the outside, 5 feet 10 inches long on the inside, and 7 inches high. It is placed on a cast-iron frame, e, protected by fire-brick, and connects with a condenser, a, 12 inches in diameter and 2 feet 3 inches high on the inside, which is placed on wheels so as to be moved when the retort is to be tilted. The retort is moved mechanically from the fire-place end at f. The furnace may be constructed for solid fuel, as in the drawing, but it was in- vented exclusively for the use of gas and hot air. The object in the construction of the retort was, to have the largest possible surface for distillation, with the shallowest depth of metal, which will not exceed 2} to 3 inches. It was proposed to make the re- tort in two parts if necessary. This furnace has never yet been built, on account of the commercial depression. Contracts for its construction were once prepared, but not completed. It seems to have the advantage of being able to treat a large quantity ex- peditiously, and thus economize in Jabor and material. The silver lead is cupelled in an English cupelle furnace. At the Germania works, there are two of these furnaces; at Cheltenham only one. ‘They are blown with a steam jet in both places. They are usually at work one week, during which time they treat 35 bars of 65 lbs. each per day. ‘The silver is then tapped, and the test changed, or the other furnace used. The 108 Line Desilverization. silver bullion produced weighs about 9000 oz. and is usually 990 to 995 fine, and contains both silver and gold, the proportions of both metals varying with the bullion or ore purchased. The litharges produced are reduced in a reverberatory furnace. At Mansfield Valley, the cupelle is made of the best hydraule Portland cement, moistened enough to ball in the hand, and stamped in an iron mould. The test is three by four feet on the inside. ‘The iron frame which supports it is flanged on the bot- tom at right angles to the rim, which is 7; inches high, while the flange is 5; wide. The test is made either on an iron mould, which gives the shape to the inside, or is cut out of the material after the frame has been stamped full. At first they were always cut out, now they are generally stamped over the mould. When made, the cupelles are left to temper for four weeks, to insure a good test. They could be used after a week, but it is better not to do so. The test is supported in the furnace on an iron plate, and is held up to its place by four large screws. ‘The charge of a rich alloy is 1400 lbs. ‘The cupelle is used a week, and cupelles from ten to twelve tons up to 996 fine, and that directly from the lead. The lead is added in the cupelle till just before it is too rich, then cleaned off and the silver is refined, and is run into the brick moulds directly from the cupelle. A little copper is added, to prevent the spitting of the silver. The copper absorbs the oxygen, and prevents the spitting. When any cop- per is present in the lead, even when gold is present, it rarely ever spits. When the silver is ready to cast into bricks, the test is loosened, and a curved bar is placed on a support made for the purpose underneath it. The whole test is then rased, and the silver, tipped at once into the moulds for the bricks, is 994 to 996 fine. This cupelle thus allows of casting, without refining in a separate furnace. It is the invention of Mr. Eurich, the manager of the Pennsylvania Lead Works, and is one of the many ingenious additions to metallurgical progress which he has made. The following tables, prepared by Mr. E. F. Eurich, give the results of cupellation at Mansfield :—* : * Mining Commissioners’ Report for 1875. Zine Desilverizution. 109 SILVER OBTAINED. | Now No. 2. | OZS. | OZS. - | 02s. Quantity of silver in the refined work lead 6,305.6 va | 6,165.9 Silver tapped_ from the UES .980 fine | 6,088.75 oz. 6,031.66 | Silver tapped from the cupelle! .989 fine 5,714.50 oz. - (5,645.9 Small pieces of silver from the cupelle | | -970 fine 150.00 oz. - - 146.50) | Small pieces of silver from the eupele | .970 fine 115.00 oz. - eplelalet In market lead 0.33 oz. pr. ton in 67,104 Tbs. 11.18 | “ec ce “e 0. 33 ce ‘cc 53. 420 ce | | 8.9 ““litharge “30 << se 5,209 << | . | 78:0) } | meee Total silver obtained. - - 6,189.34 | 5,844.3) Silver not recovered, - - 116.26 |} 321.6) Son a0 6056 6 165.9 6,165.6 Percentage of silver obtained, Sih rot! 3.3 LEAD OBTAINED. No. 1. No. 2. all Ibs. | Ibs. lbs Ibs. Work lead used - 87,294. 62,895 “Schlicker ” 3,497 Ibs. at 80 per ct, | 2,797 lew Impure Litharge from dezincation, 3, ae Ibs. | at 80 per ct. lead, - 2,800) Lead in zinc crust, - - - - | 7,765) 5,002) Soft market lead, - = - 67,104 53, 420) Oxides and skimmings from market kettles, 1,000 lbs. at 95 per ct. lead, - 950) | | Oxides and skimmings from market kettle, | 700 lbs. at 95 per ct. lead, - | 665 Litharge from dezincation, < 810 uO at - per | ct. lead, = | 6,248 Lead from liquation, - - - 808 | ‘ | i} Total lead, - : - = = 485.672 61,887 Loss about 1.9 per ct., - - 1.622 | % ses ene a - - | | 1,008; | 87,294) 87,294! | 62,895) 62,895 The following example of an operation at the Penn. Co.’s works has been prepared for me by Mr. J. A. Knapp, formerly the Superintendent there : Quantity of argentiferous lead, from Utah ores, charged, - 26 tons. Quantity of silver after dressing in the softening-furnace, - 85.94 oz. Number of skimmings, - = - = - - 2 Interval between skimmings, - - = - - 6 hours. After dressing in the zinc kettle, the lead contained silver, - 957.63 02. After the first addition of zinc, re a ws - 18.34 “ The second addition of zinc was - - - - 300 lbs. 110 Zine Desilverization. The time between No. 1 and No. 2, : - - 5 to 6 hours. After the second addition the lead contained silver, - - 0.87 oz. | The third addition of zine was’ - - - . 150 lbs. After the third addition the lead contained silver, - - 0.09 oz. Number of skimmings in softenivg-furnace, - - - 3. The merchant lead from the softening-furnace contained silver, 0.098 oz. The following tables, 1, 2 and 3, have been prepared for me by Mr. E. F. Eurich, as the result of the work at the Pennsylvania Lead Company’s Works, in August, 1879 :— 1. LEAD OBTAINED. Charged. Lbs. Lbs. Bullion, - = - = E =\ - 654, 074 Produced— Metallic dross, from refining furnace, - 11,402 43,540 Ibs. refining furnace skimmings, at 83 per cent. lead, : - : - - 35,188 Metallic dross from the desilverizing kettle, - 16,290 37,357 Ibs. zine crusts, containing - - 32,604 27,616 lbs. softening-fur nace skimmings, at 83 ne cent. lead, = = 2 . = - 22,921 Merchant lead, = = - - - 533,207 651,562 Loss, _ e = = 2 = 2,512 | 654,074 | 654,074 From the above amount of bullion, there was produced 591,244 Ibs. of refined bullion, ready for desilverizing. The silver contents of merchant lead vary from +35 to 345, oz. The refined bullion is desilverized with from three to four zinc additions, varying according to the richness of the bullion. The total quantity of zine added to effect the complete desilverizing of 591,244 lbs. refined bullion, was 7,860 lbs. 2. SILVER OBTAINED. Fine Silver. Charged— Ozs. Ozs. Silver contents of 591,244 lbs. refined bullion, - 35,048, 28 Produced— Poured from cupelle 33,318 ozs., containing - 33, 147.75 Contained i in 29,898 Ibs. litharee, at 38.00 0z., —- 568.06 ** 1,302 Ibs. test bottoms, - - 869.77 se 3 skimmings from filling test, - 61.33 34,146.91 Difference contained in dross from retorts and loss, 901.32 35,048.23! 35,048.23 Zine Desilverization. Saeed caMemnas 91 3. DISTILLATION OF THE ZINC CRUSTS. Charged— Lbs. Lbs. Liquated zine crust, - 3 . = - 37,307 Produced— Lead riches, - - - - - 31,142 Dross from retorts, about = - : : - 2,200 Metallic zinc, about - - - Sea e000 Blue powder and zine oxide, not We ees, Ss Not accounted for, - = ; : 1,115 37,375 37,375 Number of charges made, - - - - 59 The average weight of charge, - - - 629 Total coke consumed, - - - - 21,000 Quantity of coke per lb., zinc crust, - - 0.56 The following tables were taken by myself from the books at, Mansfield Valley, with the permission of Mr. KE. F. Eurich, in June, 1880, and refer to the months of April and May of that year :— CUPELLATION, April 1, ’80. From desilverizing kettles to retorts, - - * 31,865.84 Retorts to cupelle, - - - - 31,790.08 Extracted from 930 lbs. retort scrap, - - 468.81 Retort gain, - - - - > 393.05 82,208.89} 32,258.89 CUPELLATION, April, 80. Charged 27,883 lbs. of lead riches, Selene 30,659,58| 31,790.08 Produced silver bricks SMO ete - - - 723.88 Silver scrap, - - - 430.08 ‘Litharge, 26,880 Ibs., at 32 OZS., - - - 49.60 Test bottoms, 400, at 248, - - - 87.10 Cupelle skimmings, 109 Ibs., - - - Cupelle gain, - - - - 160.16 31,950.24) 31,950.24 CUPELLATION, May, ’80. From desilverizing kettles to retorts, = - 43,907.69 Retorts to cupelle, - - - - 43,208.76 Extracted from retort scrap, SAO - 839.33 Retort gain, - - - - - 140.40 44,048.09} 44,048 09 CUPELLATION,, May 8, ’80. 40,130 Ibs. lead riches, SETS - - - 43,208.76 Silver scraps, - “- - 1,315.18 Fineness samples. - - - - 34,80 Produced silver bricks, shipped, - - 43,013.47 Silver scrap, - - - - 854,35 Contained in 398 cupelle skimmings, - - 261.28 Litharge, 39,148, at 38, - - : - 748.72 Test bottoms, 826 lbs., at als. - - - 90.03 Cupelle loss, - - - - 95.89 44,558.74, 44,558.74 * The weights are in ounces. 112 Zinc Desilverization The following tables, taken by myself, from the books of the Company, give a summary of the work for April and May, 1880 :— 5 April, May. Metallic dross from refining furnace, in per cent. of gross charge, - - - - - ae 0.85 of lead and skimmings, - : 2.47 Ist net weight in desilverizing kettles, 1 000, - 96.34 97.58 1st crass from - 7.84 7.09 2d net weight as ef 96.34, -| a 88.50 89.98 Ist average assay of kettles, - - - 144.67 172.73 2d me x a - - -| 6b 182.64 160.92 1st crasses in per cent. of 1st net metal in desilver- izing kettles, - - - e 8658 8.04 Retort in per cent. of 2d desilverizing kettles, -| d 7.54 8.32 Zinc used in per cent. gross charge, - 1.37 1.59 ss ** Ist net weight in desilverizing kettles e 1.48 1.63 os ** per cent. of merchants’ lead, - 1.72 1.98 Coal jused per ton of gross charge, - - 192.16 208.00 «merchant lead, - - 238.00 262.00 Lead in merchant lead, - - , 90.47 88.99 “« retort crasses, - - ‘- - | 6.78 TAT ‘« refining skimmings, - - - | 3.28 3.48 100.53 99.94 Apparent gain, 0.53 percent, - - - Loss 1.06 per cent. The losses and gains are apparent only. a Charge for the retorts calculated on this. 6 Average assay. c Per centage of 96.34. d Per centage of 88.50. ¢ Per centage of 96.34. The lead made by the Germania, Pennsylvania Co. and St. Louis works is exceedingly fine. As it can be used for the manu- facture of white lead, it commands the highest market price. The following analyses, made by Dr. O. Wurth and Dr. Zuireck, on a sample from the works of the Pennsylvania Lead Company, show that the lead is equal if not superior to any of the brands produced abroad :— In 100 parts. Dr. O. Wurth. Dr. Zuireck, Dr. O. Wurth. Dr. Zuireck, Berlin. Berlin. Silver, 0.00042 0.00085 0.00016 0.00070, Antimony, 0.00051 0.00254. 0.00818 0,00346 Copper, 0.00007 0.00094 0.00005 0.00093 Zine, 0.00038 0.00070 0.00122 0.00075 Iron, trace. 0.00082 0.00013 0.00082 Sulphur, 0.00018 0.00023 Arsenic, none. trace Bismuth, 0.038438 0.02746 0.04594 In conclusion, I beg to express my thanks to Mr. Faber du Faur, for working-drawings of his furnaces, to Mr. Weisse, of the Germania Works, and to Mr. EHurich, of the Pennsylvania Works, for the many interesting details furnished me by them while visiting their works for the preparation of this article. Zinc Desilverization. 113 LIST OF FIGURES. PuatTeE III. Fig. 1, Sampler at Wyandotte. Fig. 2, Slag buggy at Cheltenham. Prats LV. Fig. 38, Blast furnace at the Pennsylvania Lead Works, Mansfield Valley. PLATE V. Fig. 4, Desilverization kettles at the Germania Works, Utah. PuatTe VI. Fig. 5, Refining furnace, Germania Works. Puate VII. Fig. 6, Steitz’s syphon. Fig. 7, Polting crutch. Puatre VILI. Fig. 8, Brodie’s distillation furnace. PuateE IX. Fig. 9, Cheltenham Furnace. Fig. 10, Steitz’s syphon for the retorts. Be PLstTE X. Fig. 11, Faber du Faur’s tilting furnace. PuatTe XI. Fig. 12, Details of Faber du Faur’s furnace. | Puare XII. Fig. 13, Plan of furnace proposed by Faber du Faur for the Germania Works. SeeLaTe XIII. Fig. 14, Faber du Faur’s larger furnace. New Species of Triodopsis. 115 V.—Description of a New Species of Triodopsis, from New Mexico. BY THOMAS BLAND. Read November 22d, 1880. Triodopsis Levettei, nov. sp. Testa umbilicata, orbiculato-convexa, tenuis, nitens, translucens, leviter et irregulariter oblique striata, castanea, superne pallescens; spira vix elevata, apice obtusa ; sutura impressa ; anfr. 7 convexiusculi, Jente accres- centes, ultimus antice breviter depressus, spiraliter subobsolete striatus, pone aperturam constrictus, subscrobiculatus, basi subconvexus; umbilicus mediocris (4 diametri), pervius; apertura perobliqua, subcircularis, dente albo, valido, flexuoso, transverso, in pariete aperturali intrante coarctata ; peristoma reflexum, pallide castaneum, intus callosum, marginibus callo tenuissimo junctis, margine dextro dente albo, obtuso, erecto, submar- ginali, basali dentibus duobus, albis, transversis, supero majore, instructo. Diam, maj. 16, min. 15, alt. 6}; apert., perist. incluso, long. 7, lat. 8 mill. ; Triodopsis Levetiei, nat. size. Shell umbilicate, orbiculate-convex, thin, shining, translucent, slightly and irregularly obliquely striated, chestnut colored, the upper whorls paler; 116 New Species of Triodopsis. spire scarcely elevated, apex obtuse ; suture impressed ; whorls 7, rather convex, gradually increasing ; the last somewhat depressed at the aperture, obsoletely spirally striated, constricted behind the aperture, and slightly scrobiculated, base sub-convex ; umbilicus moderate, 4 diameter of the shell, pervious ; aperture very oblique, sub-circular, with a well developed flexuose, transverse white tooth on the parietal wall ; peristome reflected, pale chestnut colored, thickened within, the margins joined by a slight callus, the right margin with a white, obtuse, erect, submarginal tooth, the basal margin with two white transverse teeth, the upper one the larger. Habitat, near Santa Fé, New Mexico, where two living and one dead specimen were collected by my friend, Dr. G. M. Le- vette, who presented to me one of the former. Cabinet of Dr. Levette, and the Binney and Bland collection in the American Museum of Natural History, New York. Remarks.—This species is quite distinct from any known North American or other form. The number of whorls, and of teeth, their form and color, with the color of the shell and peristome, are its peculiar features. The striz are by no means so well developed as shown in the figures. On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. ala VIIL.—On the Relations of the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz, West Indies. BY THOMAS BLAND. Read January 3d, 1881. Professor A. Agassiz (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, V, Nos. 14, 289, June, 1879) remarks, ‘‘ One of the most interest- ing results reached by this year’s cruise, is the ight thrown upon the former extension of the South American Continent, by the soundings taken while dredging, and those subsequently made in the passages between the islands by Commander Bartlett. These, together with the soundings already known, enable us to trace the outline of the old continent with tolerable accuracy, and thus obtain some intelligible, and at the same time trust- worthy, explanation of the peculiar geographical distribution of the fauna and flora of the West India Islands.” Professor Agassiz writes (1. c.): ‘‘In attempting to recon- struct, from the soundings, the state of things existing im a former period, we are at once struck by the fact, that the Virgin Islands are the outcroppings of an extensive bank. The great- est depth between these islands is less than forty fathoms, this same depth being found on the bank to the east of Porto Rico, the 100-fathom line forming, in fact, the outline of a large island, which would include the whole of the Virgin Islands, the whole of Porto Rico, and extend some way into the Mona Passage.” * * ‘*On examining the 500-fathom line, we thus find that Jamaica is only the northern spit of a gigantic pro- montory, which once extended toward Hayti from the mainland, reaching from Costa Rica to the northern part of the Mosquito coast, and leaving but a comparatively narrow passage between it and the 500-fathom line encircling Hayti, Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, in one gigantic island. The passage between Cuba and Jamaica has a depth of 3,000 fathoms, and that be- tween Hayti and Cuba is not less than 873 fathoms, the latter being probably an arm of the Atlantic. ‘The 500-fathom lne 118 On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. connects, as a gigantic island, the banks uniting Anguilla to St. Bartholomew, Saba Bank, the one connecting St. Hustatius to Nevis, Barbuda to Antigua, and from thence extends south so as to include Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Dominica. This 500-fathom line thus forms one gigantic island of the north- ern islands, extending from Saba Bank to Santa Cruz, and leaving but a narrow channel between it and the eastern end of the 500-fathom line running round Santa Cruz. As Santa Cruz is separated from St. Thomas by a channel of forty miles, with a maximum depth of over 2,400 fathoms, this plainly shows its connection with the northern islands of the Caribbean group, rather than with St. Thomas, as is also well shown by the geo- graphical relations of its mollusca.” Professor Agassiz gives (1. ec.) an extract of a letter addressed to him by Commander Bartlett, from which I quote the follow- ing :—‘‘I finished up the line connecting Saba Bank with St. Croix. I found the connection perfect, but the ridge has 700 fathoms water on it near St. Croix. There is 1,000 fathoms three miles north, and 1,800 fathoms five miles south of the ridge.” Professor Agassiz refers to the connection of Santa Cruz ‘‘with the northern islands of the Caribbean group, rather than with St. Thomas.” As he bases his argument on the deep chan- nel which separates Santa Cruz from St. Thomas, I judge that he excludes the Virgin Islands, of which St. Thomas is one, from the Caribbean group. In that case, in his view, Sombrero, Anguilla, St. Martin and St. Bartholomew (the three latter on the Anguilla Bank) and Saba (the Saba Bank connected by a ridge with Santa Cruz), are the ‘‘northern islands,” to which the Professor alludes. In my paper ‘‘ On the Physical Geography of, and the Distri- bution of Terrestrial Mollusca in the Bahama Islands” (Ann. N. Y. Lyc., X, 1873, 320), after quoting some of the views of Professor Dana, expressed in his work, ‘‘ Corals and Coral Islands,” 1872, I wrote as follows :— «The facts regarding the diminution in size of the islands of the West Indies to the eastward, are of peculiar interest, not only as affording conclusive evidence of the greater subsidence in that direction, but in connection with geographical distribution.” On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. 119 “The banks and islands forming the long Bahama chain di- minish in size to the southeast, where are situated at its termi- nation the submerged Mouchoir Carré, Silver and Navidad Banks. In a similar manner, the submerged Virgin Island Bank (with Anegada on its northeastern extremity, geologically, in the opinion of Dr. Cleve, resembling the Bahamas), Sombrero and the Anguilla Bank, terminate the chain of the West Indies (parallel with the Bahamas) eastward from Cuba.” In a previous paper (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1871, 57) I en- deayored to show, that the land-shell fauna of Porto Rico, with Viéque, the Virgin Islands, Sombrero, Anguilla, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew and Santa Cruz, is unquestionably the same. My present object is to show that Santa Cruz is connected with St. Thomas, the fauna of both derived from Porto Rico, in common with that of Sombrero and the islands on the An- guilla bank, but by no means with Saba. Before discussing the statement of Prof. Agassiz as to the connection of Santa Cruz with the northern islands of the Carib- bean group rather than with St. Thomas (of the Virgin group), I would first shortly describe the general features of the geology of Santa Cruz, and the character of its flora. Dr. P. T. Cleve (Proc. Royal Swedish Acad. of Sciences, Stockholm, 1871) remarks :—‘‘ The geological formations of the Island belong to different ages. The northern mountain ridge is the oldest, and to judge from its great petrographical resem- blanee with the rocks of the Virgin Islands, it would seem to belong to the same geological age as the latter, or the cre- taceous. Upon those highly disturbed strata, very little dis-- turbed beds of coralline limestone and white marls rest ; they are probably of the miocene age. The youngest formation con- sists of detritus swept down from the mountains by rains and mixed with the white marls, and in a recent formation of cal- careous sand around the shores.” * * * ‘>> aa MWK Se ) CRE : —P BLAST FURNACE NO.2. PENN.LEAD WORKS. Scale of Feet. 7] 1 2 3 4 "b Pirate IV. i BR i i U ee PIERRE = yet iN SS SSG) <= rs - v. — —— — == —— SS —E : POLLING CRUTCH OR WOOD-HOLDER FOR THE POLLING POTS Pruate VII. weng EH S a tek ker ecu evas aed Sgeesiaiiaal Seer {BAHL oud, ES See ee ‘4 : 7 - : q R d ata a as y { nl PEATE peep JE ae . mM md } - = S SSSs SV oa BS Fo} m lj Ys UG / oo \N _ Ss SS \\ \ SSS ] \S 7 ay = i N << Eosan 7 = l/ YY 777 YY, Dy I Mf TL. Uf, Yi i ce / " f y Z 7 yy yy y sence . ar YUM LLL LL LAA WWW MLL Wf 7 yy Y] WY Y/ Y N FURNACE. Fig.8. BRODIE’S DISTILLATIO Scale CS ERT) 7 a ~ Fire place, b - Grate bars, ¢ - Ash pit. \\) \ ANN g = — bo Ss 3 5 eR = : ate 2 ise S > = Ss 8 = Ss Rah com Sea SSS SES gees s bs 3 = 2.2 SE Saeweeom esas SSA Re = @ S's A o> SARTRE sees ees Ss sess ASNRSSWE RRS ast eed Deter ' a f eS O, Centre lin m - T tron strengthening bars, fi a ih a UANVORLIT UALR ALAMLLLEUSUE Y] TM YY Uj LL — | ime — 7 Uf SECTION A--A SS SS SS Ss SS SS S Swe SS ZF RSG KG ZZ cS m ll es BLA YU TM) nite ae SECTION C--C | Puate VIII. ioe pens 12 9 SSS SECTION B-B | supporting Allonge lined with fire brick | | for grate bars | SIDE ELEVATION PLATE IX. Figsgs ae — \N Y SECTION OF ALLONGE ty ; ‘ FRONT ELEVATION SECTION A-A SECTION B-B —— Ft. a- Furnace with iron frame lined f - Hinged shelf sunporting Allonge with fire brick g - Square flue lined with fire brick b - Brick foundation of furnace h - Coke opening c - Retort i - Fire pit d - Drick pier supporting retort 7 ~ Iron support for grate bars e - Allonage k- Ash pit. PLAN SECTION C-C 1 Scale 4 3 =! 4 Tn ace eo Salen Le ne Bie ourentin a rence = Z a 7, =a é = is a), PLATE X. l - a a ao a0 ii te aL 77 Yi. a a A ———- —.- -01-- ——- —_-— V\ a YW SS ? wi | - = I/II oor ie EC. ohh = a Eee | > | = saan SH SILL L - \\ CS Russell & Strathers, Eng'rs, N.Y. \\ ELEVATION SECTION C.--D. ANNAN \V —— j oe LE: EEL ILLFLED SESIEEDLEEITLERIIEIE IG EAIVOSIVEEID DLETTLILITIES TI LIDLIV IED ll ae © am RE Mf SSS Lv AMSEC ES \V7 SIDE VIEW - \ \ Yu Bt) \ WIRTZ 7 A SS bis Ly TAN: WWW \ YR IMPROVED RETORT FURNACE” SCALE OF FEET by F.du Faur,C. LE. =e PETDEIEE —— 2 SECTION A.--B. PLAN PrarE X. th cp ee et Pg ep ee cae a 233 ites See ps7 os an OUTSIDE OF FRAME A. PLAN ELEVATION SECTION OFE, OUTSIDE OF SIDE B, 1S, ENG'S,N.Y. | —_— {+ Fig. 12. ie INSIDE OF FRAME A, OUTSIDE OF SIDE B, EDGE SECTION PLAN TRUNNIONS ° ° ° ° o ° (e) (o} (e) Sale ae Eee see dl FRONT C, Se) . CRANK FOR TILTING THE FURNACE AS ADOPTED BY THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT SCALE OF FEET & INCHES SESS = 1 2 3 eH oO TOP TOP bot BOTTOM PLATE F, SIDE es Saber a A section LOS CTT min TO 0 GRATE BAR SUPPORT Ee — = | @secTION GRATE BAR AML ELEVATION Poe 4 ZA, SIDE ENDLESS SCREW FOR TILTING FURNACE AS USUALLY MADE DETAILS OF A.FABER DU FAUR’S RETORT FURNACE. Prats XI. RUSSELL & STRUTHERS, ENG'S,N.Y« OFeE, SECTION IP i! — Ss am re i Bi ag it BALA 1 aiSv! ) a yeakegyS 347 2 t ‘A SAAR AC 1¥8 - piuAmuC sa Fig. 13. a- Faber Du Faur’s tilting furnace. b - Support for retort. c- Fluejointed so that the furnace may swing. d- Vertical T iron ties holding brick walls together. e-Stands supporting furnaces Sf - Main flue. ‘ g - Chimney 60 feet high. Scale SECTION A--A SY) PLAN (S\ Brick [Aire brick Iron in section (Wl) Iron in elevation PLAN OF FABER DU FAUR’S TILTING RETORT FURNACE AT THE GERMANIA WORKS FLACH’S STATION, NEAR SALT LAKE, UTAH. Prare SO, ” eA LAs ye 3 =a 2 =. pa Egg a Pt Vater SARA Ants Bo ms Fs Winans 4 nels Tex i Bees echo y NAVAN LOse¥e ‘ Ay esa ALOMOROHIET BOL oes: hay ai Seo e hey ot 18 a ay Py ae os sme ai vi AGT epee Sbh NaI I ROA SE mi ae 2 * anh “V a Ae ad Aa ot a reas aA Fig. 14. + TILTING FURNACE FOR FLAME OR GAS; BY F. DU FAUR, SCALE OF FEET AND INCHES = — —— oe iene 39 i Paae e 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ww \ \ SY > m b ] = oo Basco \ SECTION THROUGH A.B : Peel a SECTION THROUGH C.D, a - Condenser on truck, b - Underground flue. ec - Gas-escape. d - Gas-escape-flue with a movable cover for cleaning condenser. e - Tron beams on which the furnace is buiit tilted at f. g -Trunnions on which the furnace moves. h - Fire-br*ck supports for the retort i. Retort. Z Zi mwa -. ‘ A Z SSsSsSSSS Puate XII. : See i} 5 eee [covet rer » = Re, € SRY eo eer per —— pa | 7 st " id Ds Pees —< AV. CEES i ee VOLUME 2, 188082. ner or more numbers: the price per volouie} is or $0. 00 we color ed plates m of $10 i Ge: are aie to all ine nemenne Publications Acad m. perenne subsequently to the payment of their contri- d be hodrescod: to Serer Cues! --Pror. D. S. MARTIN, Chairman of Publication Committee, 236 West Fourth St. 41 West Thirty-second St. vithin the United States, on sending the amount e Treasurer, will seeelv ele numbers as they Agents in London, TRUBNER & Co. * : oe E ee c “ BLD ng CONTENTS. V.—On Zinc Desilverization. By Tos. Eciustron, (with Plates ETE tO: SE Sic aa os oa 2 ie V1.—Description of a New Species of Triodopsis, from New Mexico. By THomAs BUAND. 5-955... .02 00. VII.—On the Relations of the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz, . Wiest Indies: By Tomas BUAND..¢:1=: Gece VIIJ.—Notes on Macroceramus Kieneri, Pfr. and M. pontificus, Gould, By Tomas BUAND,..........).>. oe [The Index to Vol. I. with Contents and Title page, will be issued ere long.] _Feb.—dune, (881. Nos. 5 and 6. _ | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ay e ae) \ 7 ANNALS OF THE b) LATE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. Py aa r SOF wasntic: Wew York: PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 18st. Gro. GreGory, Printer, 34 CAKMINE Street, N. Y. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. [8sl. President. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. Vice-Presidents. T., EGGLESTON. BENJ. N. MARTIN: @onyesponding Secretany. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secretary. OLIVER P. HUBBARD. Greasurer JOHN H. HINTON. foibrarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. ee en. Gommittee of Publication. DANIEL $8. MARTIN. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. GHO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS. oe ee a Woe Py DROME Gia: Helix aspersa in California. 129 IX.—On Helix aspersa in California, and the Geographical Distribution of certain West American Land-Snails, and previous errors relating thereto, &e. BY ROBERT E. C. STEARNS, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Read March 28th, 1881]. The presence of the well-known European land-snail, Helix aspersa, 11 California, as an inhabitant of the State, is verified by living specimens received by me recently, through the kind- ness of Mr. Harford, of the California Academy, of Sciences. They were collected near San José, in Santa Clara County, where it is stated that a colony exists, which, as will be seen by the foot-note,* was planted twenty-three years ago! * In a reply to Mr. Harford’s inquiry, Mrs. A. E. Bush, of San José, writes,—‘‘I learn that H. aspersa was brought from France to San José about twenty-three years ago, by Mr. A. Delmas, and turned out on the Guadalupe, probably with the grape-vines. You have evidence that the first colony of Helices are doing well. Ido not learn that any one else has ever brought any. A son of Mr. Delmas gave me the information, and also, that they were planted in the southern part of the State at the same time, where they were put on the grape-vines, and that they have done better there than here. * * * * * They were probably brought here as an experiment, and have been eaten, and have not spread beyond the locality where first planted. There are a few French families about there [i. e. on the Guadalupe], but they seem very unwilling to give any informa- tion, which may be, because Americans are prejudiced against snails as an article of food. * * * Am satisfied that the handful * * * that I got were intended for the pot * * * The soil where the colony was sinew ts is a rich, sandy loam, well shaded ; when the summer heats come, the Helices descend into the ground several feet, in the cracks that form as the ground dries ; and the gopher-holes make retreats also for the Helix.” It should be borne in mind that the San José referred to herein, is an interior town or city of many thousand inhabitants, several miles back from 130 Felix aspersa in California. “ At first thought, one is led to doubt the probability that such a form, in a locality near to any considerable population, could be so long unknown to naturalists; but when we consider the facts, first, that the place where it was planted was on private ground of considerable area, several acres; second, that the climate of the region, with its long rainless summers, is not so conducive to the rapid multiplication of individuals as is the native climate of the species; third, that the increase was quite likely the measure of consumption as food by the parties owning the locality ; and, fourth, that the presence of the spe- cies was kept secret by those who used it,—the improbability is greatly reduced. The detection of individuals of this species in this part of the world recalled the fact of its having been previously reported from this coast, over thirty years ago; yet, during all this time, not the first iota of confirmatory testimony has been obtained, and the credit at that time to our faunal list has ever been reé- garded, by our local naturalists and collectors, as without valid foundation. IJ have been curious to look into the matter. and to seek for the source of this error, for error it undoubtedly is. In pursuance of this inquiry, I find many other west coast species incidentally involved, and many errors in habitat, which have been so often repeated, as to justify the time required for their correction, if accuracy of statement as to geographical dis- tribution is of any importance. Mr. W. G. Binney, in his recent volume* on ** The Terres- the coast, and distant between two and three hours’ ride by rail from San Francisco, southward. The ‘‘ Guadalupe” referred to, is a river formed by several minor streams; it flows northerly through Santa Clara Valley, and empties into the Bay of San Francisco at its southerly end, near Alviso ; the valley is compara- tively thickly settled, the region being one of the most fertile in the State. The ‘‘ Guadalupe” river, as above, must not be confounded with ‘‘ Guada- lupe island,” mentioned later in this paper. The colony planted in the southern part of the State, as reported by Mrs. Bush, has not as yet been discovered ; the climate, etc., is much less favor- able for its perpetuity than that of the Santa Clara Valley. , * Volume V, July, 1878. See, also, Binney (Senior), in Vol. Il, p. 117. Heliv aspersa in California. 131 trial and Air-Breathing Mollusks of North America, ete.,” re- ports this species, as found ‘*In gardens in Charleston, South Carolina, and vicinity, where it has existed for fifty years: I found it plentifully in St. Michael’s Churchyard, in 1875; also, has been found at New Orleans and Baton Rouge ; Portland, Maine; Nova Scotia; Santa Barbara, California; Hayti, St. Jago, Chili, etc.; it is a European species, accidentally intro- duced into this country, or rather by commerce as an article of food. It evidently is a species peculiarly adapted to coloni- zation.” Though credited to California as above, I have always thought that this was an error arising from hasty or mistaken determina- tion, and that the shell upon which it rests was either an indi- vidual of the species since described as H. Tryoni* or H. Stearn- siana,+ or perhaps an aberrant H. Avellettii, of which specimens sometimes occur, which in color, elevation and general aspect, resemble dwarf individuals of H. aspersa of Miiller. My previ- ous quotation from Mr. Binney will show that the latter species is credited to Santa Barbara ; it has never been confirmed from said point, or from any other on the west coast of North America, by any of the numerous collectors of later years. Dr. Cooper, in his Geographical Catalogue of the Mollusca (April, 1867), very properly omits it from the list of West American species. I haye numerous specimens, however, of H. Tryoni, from Santa Barbara Island. The late Dr. Philip Carpenter, in his Report on the Mollusce of the west coast of North America,{ says, ‘* Among the wasted opportunities of obtaining very valuable information on geo- graphical distribution, must unfortunately be recorded the sur- veying voyages of the ‘Herald’ and ‘ Pandora,’ Capt. Kellett, R. N., C. B., and Lieut. Wood, R. N. The former of these gen- tlemen commanded the ‘Starling’ during the Sulphur Expedi- tion. Their zeal for science is shown not only by the large num- ber of fine and valuable shells which they brought back, but * Described by Dr. Newcomb, in 1864, and { By the late Dr. Gabb, in 1867. } To the British Association, 1856, paragraph 50. 152 Helix aspersa in California. especially by the extreme liberality with which they have presen- ted them to public museums wherever they thought they could be made useful. The shells were deposited in the Musenm of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, then presided over by Prof. E. Forbes. He writes that ‘they were chiefly collected on the coast of Southern California, from San Diego to Magdalena, and the shores of Mazatlan.’” Carpenter continues, saying, “this is precisely the very district of all others on which we are in want of accurate information. San Diego belongs mainly to the Californian province, Mazatlan to that of Panama; the question yet to be settled is, where and how do they separate ? Here was an exploration in competent hands, on the very ¢erra incognita itself ; and yet, alas! Prof. E. Forbes further states, that ‘‘unfortunately the precise locality of many of the indi- vidual specimens had not been noticed at the time; and a quan- tity of Polynesian shells mingled with them, have tended to render the value of the collection, as illustrative of d’stribution, less exact than it might have been.” Such information as was accessible at the time was embodied by Prof. EK. Forbes, in two communications to the Zoological Society, 1850; the first on the Land Shells, collected during the Expedition. Proc., pp. 53— 56; the second on the Marine Mollusca, pp. 270—274.” * * * It would expand this paper unduly to quote the entire para- graph, so I will only add the following, from the same author, from the same and following pages : ‘Helix Pandore, Forbes, p. 55, pl. 9, f. 33 a, 6. Sta. Bar- bara, as per box-label: San Juan del Fuaco, teste Forbes. —Kellettii, Fbs. p. 55, pl. 9, f. 2; a,b. Allied to H. Californi- ensis, Lea. Same locality, * * = * #0 ae —aspersa, marked Sta. Barbara; probably imported, p. 53.” Then follows a list of the marine forms described by Prof. Forbes, succeeded by Carpenter’s remarks: “The types of the described species, and numerous most beautiful and interesting specimens, have been presented to the British Museum. ‘The remainder may be seen by students in the drawers of the Mus. Pract. Geol.; but the condition of the labels is not such that any dependence can be placed on them, unless confirmed from ouner soumees: ae 2s) = “So large a number, even of those placed with the Mazatlan Helix aspersa in California. 133 shells, and perhaps obtained by commerce from that spot, are known to be inhabitants of the Pacific Islands and the East Indies, that a list of them would be entirely useless for our present object.” The closing lines of Dr. Carpenter hardly justify the previous remark, ‘‘an exploration in competent hands,” etc.; and a re- currence to the species cited shows, that even so eminent an authority as Prof. Forbes was, to use a common expression, ‘* at sea,” in the matter of locality ;* while the box-labels were more nearly, if not quite right. Mr. Binneyt+ gives the habitat of Kellettii as ‘‘Sau Diego; Catalina Island, San Nicolas Island, California ;” and Cooper{ refers it to “Catalina Island, San Diego and south.” ‘The latter author does not refer to H. Pandore, as it is not an inhabitant of the Californian and Vancouver zoélogical province, being south of the southern lmit of his catalogue, which covers the: region ‘‘ between latitudes 33° and 49° north.” ee in the volume quoted, properly credits H. Pandore ** Margarita Bay, Lower California.” Forbes’s habitat of this ee is only seventeen hundred miles too far non ,—and of Kellettii, eleven hundred. Another distinguished author|| has placed the Lower Califor- nian Helix levis on the Columbia river,—about fifteen hundred miles too near the north pole. Tryon§ properly credits it to Southern California,4 and adds in a note that our mutual friend, Dr. Newcomb, sent him speci- * Forbes’s ‘‘San Juan del Fuaco,” perhaps should have been San Juanico, a small port in Lower California on the outer coast, lat. 26° N., and within the territory inhabited by Pandore, areolata, etc. For the sake of brevity, it is often called ‘‘San Juan.” + Vol. V. t+ Geog. Catalogue, etc. | Mon. Hel. Viv., 1, 154; III, 128; Zeitschr. f. Mal., 1845, 152; in Ohemnitz, ed. 2, I, 249, pl. XXXVI, f. 16, 17 (1846)—Reeve, Con. Icon., 1214 -—and other authors cited by Binney in L. & F. W. Shells of N. A., » Part I, p. 180. § Am. Jour. Conch., Vol. II, p. 320. “ Meaning Lower California. 134 Helix aspersa in California. mens of it ‘‘from Bay of Monterey, Cal., as a variety of #. areolata,” which latter he refers* to ‘Oregon, California.” This was undoubtedly a /upsuws calami, on the part of the Doctor. The geography is slightly obscure, and neither of the stations are correct; also H. intercisa, W. G. B., an insular species found on the islands off the coast of the southern portion of California proper, is credited by him to ‘‘ Oregon,” in pursu- ance of Binney’s error, which the latter author has indicated im his recent volume. + Mr. Hemphill wrote to me-(in July, 1879) just after his re- turn from the region, ‘‘I have Helix intercisa, Binn., and its vars., also small dark and light vars. of H. Kellettii from San Clemente Island.” Catalina Island is apparently the metropolis of the latter form. San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Anacapa, are islands in what is called the Santa Barbara Channel; while Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San Nicolas and San Clemente, are further south; of these, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Santa Catalina, are the principal or largest, while San Miguel, San Nicolas, and San Clemente, are farthest from the main land. As regards H. Wellettii, Kellett and Wood may have found it ‘on Santa Barbara Island, or on some of the islands in the Santa Barbara Channel, and marked the box ‘‘ Sta Barbara,” without intending to mean the place or town of that name on the main land; but as Avedlettii has not been reported by later and more accurate collectors from Santa Barbara Island, it is far more likely that a variety of Tryoni is really the shell referred to as ‘““aspersa.” As to H. aspersa, it would be quite absurd even to imply that so excellent a naturalist as Mr. Forbes was not intimately ac- quainted with every aspect and varicty of a form so abundant as this, both in England and on the Continent. As before stated, its occurrence as above las never been yeri- fied; and though a species of cosmopolitan plasticity, in its ready adaptation to new regions, there was no commercial intercourse * Am. Jour. Conch., Vol. II, p. 319. 1 Vol. V, p. 361. Helix aspersa in California. 135 between any of the places where it had previously been found and that part of California to which Prof. Forbes credits it, up to the date of said credit, or, rather, the date of the ‘* Herald” collection. Simee then, during the time which. embraces the -* oreat emigration” following the discovery of gold in Cali- fornia in 1849, that part of the coast of California has had but little if any direct contact with vessels from ports in countries where H. aspersa exists. Prior to 1849, the coastwise traffic was very insignificant, and the foreign commerce consisted only of the few vessels engaged in the hide and tallow trade, and the whalers; therefore its introduction by such means is altogether improbable. For the very reason that Forbes was intimately familiar with aspersd in all its varied aspects,—I believe he was led to credit it to the West coast through the striking resemblance which occa- sional specimens of Zryont, Stearnsiana, and WHellettii bear to occasional specimens of aspersa; not typical or average specimens, but extreme, unusual, but occasional individuals. I have before me now a specimen which connects extremes of Avellettvi and Stearnsiana; it is strikingly like an extreme speci- men of aspersa which is also before me. I have likewise, speci- mens of rather dark colored H. Tryoni, which strikingly resem- ble a light colored dwarf aspersa. If the California specimens referred to in this comparison were placed within a region where aspersa is abundant, they would at once be regarded as dwarf varieties or aberrant individuals of that species. If the specimen of aspersa referred to was placed within the territory of either Zryoni, Kellettii, or Stearnsiana, it would be considered a variety of one or the other according to the area within which it was placed. Having possessed, seen, and noticed at various times a great number of all of the species above named, and observed their range of variation and approximation to other forms, I regard this hypothesis, as to Forbes’s H. aspersa in “Sta Barbara,” in connection with the other related points presented, as a reason- ably satisfactory solution of the matter; as furnishing a better basis for Forbes’s credit of aspersa to this coast, at that time, than any other that is left us to choose from, viz., that the shell he had before him was a veritable aspersa;—or that a true as- 156 fleliv aspersa in California. persa got mixed in with the *‘Herald” shells after the latter ar- rived in England. Though the above hypothesis does not ex- onerate the collectors of the ‘‘Herald” shells from the careless- ness evident in their labels, it does favor them with an explana- tion which places their habitat (as per label) within a compara- tively near proximity to the proper specific areas, which our present knowledge indicates as correct. It is, however, really extraordinary that any author who had seen the actual shells of the above American species and possess- ing any knowledge of the relation of climate to coloration, should have placed any of them without great hesitation and careful re- search at so northern a station as this inquiry and a reference to their works reveals. ‘Take all the West American species named in this paper, and their external aspect points conspicuously to a habitat of minimum rainfall or moisture; and the aspect of the species, taken together as a whole, points to a region of aridity, or where aridity is the rule and not the exception. The time will come, and it is not creditable to the manage- ment of museums anywhere, that it has not already arrived, » when collections will be arranged in double order, or under two systems ; one, and the east important—now made the most so— that of a classified arrangement according to the best authori- ties ; the other, a geographical arrangement,—carefully placed— according to the geographical distribution of animal life. Aside from the hght which such an arrangement would throw upon many other points of great importance,—in the matter of cli- matology a better knowledge of a great region would be pre- sented at a glance than by all human records, or since civilization reached the point of meteorological observation. * The various forms included under the names of H. areolata, Pandore, Veatchii and levis, I regard as varieties of a single spe- cies. The first two are found in great numbers on the shores and in the region about Margaritat or properly Magdalena bay, * In connection more or less directly with this line of investigation, see Cooper ‘‘ On the Law of Variation, ete. ; California Land Shells; Cal. Acad. Proc., 1878, p. 121 and elsewhere. + Margarita is a large island, whose shores form a part of the boundary of Magdalena bay ; hence the bay is sometimes so named by writers and sailors. Helie aspersa in California. — 137 Lower California. Mr. Fisher found Helix areolatu abundant on the shores of Santa Maria bay, which is a small bay indenting an island of that name, ouiside of Magdalena bay. AH. Veatchii and #. /evis are insular forms, usually much more globose and ‘elevated than their relatives from the main land. A. Veatchii, the largest of the four, is from the large island known as ‘* Ce- dros” or ** Cerros ;’ which forms the greater part of the western boundary of the bay of St. Sebastian Viscanio, lat. 28° to 29° N. Fisher found /evés abundant dead in Asuncion, a small island south of Cedros, in lat. 27°. Magdalena bay is still further south, more than half way between Cedros Island and Cape St. Lucas. The tubercle on the columella is sometimes present and some- times absent in all the above; it has no value, in this group at least, as a specific character ; this conclusion I have reached after the examination of hundreds of individuals of all these so-called species. Binney regards Veatchii as a synonym of areolata, but he ‘ recognizes Pandore and levis as valid species. Neither of the four figures* he gives of H. areolata are characteristic of the main-land forms,—being too elevated, though they may be typi- cal in pursuance of the original description; the two larger figures are good for Veatchii, the two smaller for levés. Veatchii is full as much entitled to specific rank as either of the others. Mr. Tryon recognizes all as valid species; he places areolata, Pandore and levis, in the subgeneric group PoLymita, and Veatchii in ArtonTA. Binney puts them together in Kupa- RYPHA. I cannot but regard these subgeneric divisions, to a great extent, as arbitrary and unsatisfactory; they seem to be more or less fanciful and superficial, and based upon too narrow and unsubstantial grounds; and the frequent differences of opinion on this point by such conscientious authors as those whom I have quoted, confirm observations made in the cabinet and the field. Asa matter of information not unrelated to the general sub- ject of this paper, I may mention the detection of fossil speci- * Land and F. W. Shells of N. A., p. 177, fig. 311. - - 138 Helix aspersa in California. mens of H. Tryoni Newce., in Santa Barbara Is., H. tenuistriata, Binney,—from the same locality ; H. intercisa, W. G. B., from the shell-heaps of San Clemente Is., and H. Slearnsiana, Gabb, fossil, from about four miles above the mouth of San Tomas river, Lower California, collected and presented to my museum by Henry Hemphill, Esq. . The comments of Mr. Binney* relating to a specimen of /. tenuistriata (so-called) from Catalina Island, impress me as ap- plying to the specimens so-named from Santa Barbara Is., as above. They appear to be forms of H. Gabbi, Newe. Again, Mr. Binney’s opinion as to the identity of Gabbi and facta, m the same page of the same volume, I regard as correct. He might also have included H. ruficincta, or rufocincta as Dy. Newcomb named it. Binney places these three species (all of Dr. Newcomb) in the group ArronTA; Tryon in AGLAJA. Binney, referring to the soft parts of Gabbi and facta, says:—‘‘Genitalia, * * * without the accessory duct of the genital bladder, and with a dart-sac. They resemble nearly those of ruficincta, * * * differing chiefly in the length of the duct of the genital blad- der.” The number of whorls is the same in all three, namely, 5 to 6; the general aspect is the same, presenting no other essential difference than size. H. facta is ‘‘ulso found, the variety with the open umbilicus, like that form found fossil on San Nicolas Island, California,”> on the Island of Guadalupe, which is about 220 miles from San Diego, off the west coast of Lower California. Before closing, I will notice, as worthy of inquiry, the appa- rent relation between the saline, sandy, wind-swept stations 1n- habited by Helix Ayresianat (not Ayersiana) and Helix in- tercisa, and the sharp obliquely-reticulated sculpture which characterizes these species. The first of these was credited to ‘‘Oregon,” in Dr. New- comb’s original description, instead of the islands of Santa Cruz, *L. & F. W. Moll., Vol. V, 1878, p. 372. {+ Binney, Proc. Phil. Acad., 1879, p. 16. ¢{ Named for Dr. W. O. Ayres, not Ayers. Helix aspersa in California. 139 San Miguel, and Santa Rosa, where it has since been found, by Harford, Hemphill, and others. It is nearly related to H. Du- petithouarsit, which occupies a maritime, but less exposed wooded station on the main land, much farther to the north, near Monterey bay, in Monterey County; south of said county is a Jong stretch, a large area extending southerly to Point Concep- tion at the head of the Santa Barbara channel, which embraces the counties of San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara, where 4. Traskii, another closely related form, occurs ; south of the point is the small island of San Miguel and the larger ones of Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa, where dyresiana is found. H. Ayresiana is much lighter colored than the average of Dupetithouarsii ; it inhabits a more arid and treeless station; its general tone may be described as a dingy light café-au-lait, with a rather broad reddish-brown band, which in some individuals is obscure or entirely obsolete. A. Traskii sometimes exhibits the sculp- ture herein noticed. Specimens of A. intercisa from San Clemente_island are sometimes beautifully sculptured. Of the San Clemente snails, for which I am indebted to the courtesy and generosity of Mr. Hemphill, H. intercisa,—with which Mr. Binney includes H. crebristriata, Newcomb, as a synonym,—is closely related to H. Tryoni,* and the H. redimita specimens, received from the same gentleman, indicate an equally 4 close connection with H. Kellettii, which has the same number of whorls, and other characters in common. _ It will be observed, upon a comparison of the shells herein recited, and the stations wherein they are found, that the geo- graphical proximity or relationship also corroborates the views herein expressed. Further testimony, showing the propriety of my remarks as to _ subgeneric divisions, is presented by reviewing the relationship of these San Clemente snails, and comparing the same with the positions heretofore assigned to them. Frepevary, 1881. * I find Mr. Binney practically agrees with the above, upon turning to - Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. V, p. 357, which see. 140 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. xX. —The Life-History of Spinifer levis, Hall :—a Paleonto-: logical Study. BY ILENRY S. WILLIAMS. Read April 25th, 1881. In middle and western Wer York, cropping out also in cies localities westward and southward, appears w series of shales and. shaly sandstones known as the Portage group. The total thickness of the series, as defined by Hall, is from: 1000 to 1400 feet in the western part of New York State. Leslie defines 1450 feet of Portage Flags in Pennsylvania. The ‘* Erie shales” rocks in Ohio, where they thin out and disappear west of the Vermilion River. Rocks corresponding to the upper layers of the Hamilton Period, or lower part of the Portage, are found further west, and are called ‘‘ Black slates,” or ‘* Black shales,”—the ‘‘ Huron” in Ohio, and the ** Huron group,” Winchell, in Michigan. Although the line between the Hamilton and Chemung. Periods is not clearly defined in these western outcrops, these) ‘black shales” and ‘‘ Huron” slates are apparently more closely connected historically with the Hamilton Period than with the Chemung ; and we may regard the true Portage shaly sandstone, | in which the characteristic fossils occur in western New York, as limited in outcrop to middle and western New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania. -In the upper part of the Portage beds, in a few localities only, has been found a large, smooth-surfaced, unplicated fossil of the genus Spirifer, described first by Hall, in the Geological Report of the Fourth District of New York, 1843, p. 345, fig. 1, under the name of Delthyris levis. ‘This was afte1waids (1867) more fully described and carefully figured in the fourth volume of the Paleontology of New York as Spirifera levis (1. ¢., p. 239, pl. XXXIX) by James Hall. In the latter description, two of Newberry are considered as the same’ The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 141 localities are given—near Ithaca, Tompkins Co., and near Cort- landville, Cortland Co. - The species is also recorded from the shores of Seneca Lake ; also, there are specimens in the Museum of Cornell University. labelled from Flint Creek. Ontario Co. ‘There is, however, reasonable doubt as to the correctness of the label. Only a few localities are known in which this large fossil is found, and, so far as I can learn, none outside of the State. -A study of the species, and of the rocks of the Portage about. Ithaca, has shown that, stratigraphically, the species is probably limited to a mass of shales of not over three feet thickness, marked below by a stratum of argillaceous sandstone,—which in some localities is clearly defined and solid, of a foot in thick-, ness, at other points indistinct by reason of the greater amount. of argillaceous matter causing a looser and more shaly structure, —and marked near the top by a thin layer, three or four inches in thickness, of argillaceous sandstone. The fossil appears most abundantly in fine soft shale, quite devoid of arenaceous material, just above the lower sandstone layer, and just above the upper four-inch layer. It occurs, also, but not so thickly massed, between the two sandstone layers; but only one specimen has as yet been seen in’ the upper sand- stone layer. -In his Report on the Brachiopods of the State (1. ¢., p. 237), Prof. Hall remarks, that this is the only species of Spirifer from the Portage formation then (March, 1867) known to-him, and as far as any record is published, no other Spirifer has been: found as yet (1880). a _At-first glance this species recalls forms of later rather than earlier times, and the suggestion is strong to associate it with: the Carboniferous species rather than with the Hamilton or: earlier forms which precede it. There are many such forms in the upper Devonian,—both in America and Great Britain and Kurope,—which point to a relationship between the two ages, | quite impossible to reconcile with the idea of any great catas-: trophe as separating the two. Comparing it with the Hamilton sSpirifers, this is a well- marked species, not the only or the first unplicated, smooth species, but the first large one possessing these characters, and 142 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. in general appearance it is readily distinguished from any earlier form. Comparing it with European forms of the Carboniferous, it appears as one of them; and in general Spirifer levis, H. pre- sents greater resemblance to the Carboniferous than to the De- vonian representatives of the genus. As a well-marked form, with a limited geological horizon, and appearing in a limited geographical area, Spirifer levis is interesting in itself; and a study of its relations to the past, be- comes especially interesting, on account of its appearance here in the Portage, as a new and distinet ‘‘ species,” and in its dis- tinctive characters, seeming to belong to a type or form entirely new for the genus. It stands out prominently as a suddenly appearing ‘*species;’’ and between it and the forms preceding it there appears, at first sight, to be a distinct gap. Without attempting to redescribe the species, it may be worth while to point out its distinguishing characters. Form and Proportions.—TVhe outline of the ventral valve, the I}. ; one more commonly met with, is sub-circular or semi-elliptical, with prominent beak and broadly rounded margins at the car- dinal extremities, the margins of the shell almost always crushed and generally distorted. Opposite the beak, the base of the sinus is generally folded under, and thus this margin appears truncated, especially in larger shells. ‘Che greatest width of the shell is in a line lying anterior to the cardinal line about as far as the beak extends posterior to it. Over this same line is the greatest elevation of the swollen valve. The proportions of length to breadth are, as Hall mentions, ‘from two to three, or three to four.” In specimens of which the sinus 1s preserved to the end, I find the distance measured on the outer surface of the shell, from the point of the beak along the groove of the sinus to its anterior margin, is very nearly equal to the greatest actual breadth of the shell. This line measures the actual length of superficial growth in the medial line of the ventral valve, and thus becomes a very fair unit of measurement for comparison, and can be determined as well in distorted as in uncrushed specimens. The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 143 Size.—The length of this median growth-line, in specimens of ordinary size, is about. five centimeters, or about two inches. As an example of shape, I will give the proportions of a medium- sized specimen (No. 260) of my own cabinet, whose outlines are well preserved : Median growtb-line, - - - - - - 45 em. Greatest breadth, - = - - - - ab diy 06 Total length of cardinal area, its extremities merely linear, 3.4% Greatest elevation of shell above the plane of the margins, cy we lee Pre In same plane, distance from hinge-area to extremity of beak, O56 is Greatest separation of the two folds forming boundaries of the sinus, - - - - - - - Sua 1A Beak.—Vhe beak is prominent, and arches over the cardinal area. Cardinal area.—Vhe cardinal area is short and high; when viewed perpendicularly to its surface, the convexity of the shell above the beak appears about equal to the elevation of the area, and it falls rapidly to a narrow linear area for the terminal part of the hinge-line. Aperture.—The aperture is triangular, and in all perfect spec- imens is found to be covered with a pseudo-deltidium. Pseudo-deltidium.—This pseudo-deltidium is triangular, and convexly arching outward and, in what seem to be normal spec- imens, has the form of an equilateral triangle, though in other specimens with short and very high area, the pseudo-deltidium is narrow, forming an acute angle at the top. Surface.—The surface is in general smooth; only faint lines of growth appear until near the margin, where the surface is often coarsely imbricated by concentric lines of growth. Obscure plications.—Hall mentions the fact of the obscure and undefined radiating folds occurring in older shells. This is noticed to be a fact; and the only specimens in which these obscure plications have been observed (by the writer) are those from the lowest layers in which the species occurs. Fur- ther investigation may disprove the supposition, but as far as _ observation goes, the facts suggest that traces of radiating plica- tions appear only on specimens from the lowest strata, 7. e. at the first appearance of the species, and only on the largest and hence 144 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. most thoroughly developed specimens. We will refer later to other interesting facts in this connection, only mentioning now that wherever these traces of plications are found, they appear on the marginal portions of the shell, and never high up toward the beak. There is still another character which is highly important, and it forms one of the most valuable criteria in tracing out the relations of the species. Jal], evidently, had not observed it, and I can find no printed evidence that any author has hereto- fore noted the fact next described.* Concentric series of minute radiating lines.—Vhe surfaces of specimens well developed, and which did not suffer from attrition before being safely covered up, show under a glass of moderate magnifying power, fine concentric rows of short radiating lines, such as are seen coarse and strong in Spirifer fimbriatus of the Hamilton and Corniferous, and in several other species of other periods, and which furnished Davidson the distinguishing char-— acter by which to separate the Devonian S. curvatus, Schl. from the Carboniferous 8. glaber, Martin. It is surprising that Hall did not notice this fact when the strong resemblance to the Brit- ish representatives of S. glaber, Martin, tigured by Davidson, was specially mentioned by him. _ Further comment will be made upon these points. We have drawn attention to the few characteristic marks of this species:—To enumerate them, they are evident, as follows, a. 1st, in the form and proportions of the shells; 6. 2nd, in the size; c. 8d, in the prominence and over-arching of the beak; d. 4th, in the short and high cardinal area; é. Sth, in the triangular aperture covered by arched pseudo- deltidium; f. 6th, in the smoothness of the surface; g. 7th, in the concentric series of minute radiating lines; * Since this paper was completed, and an abstract published, I learned that Prof. Hall had previously observed the surface markings of Sp. /wvis referred to, and had already pre- pared plates illustrating the fact, for a work which is as yet unpublished. Mar, 1881. H. 8S. W. The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 145 These are the data preserved for us in the rocks, from which we are to determine the specific character of the shell. These are all morphological characters, and the species they define is plainly a morphological species; and it is by study of these facts that the history and the relations of the species, and its true limits and nature, can alone be determined. A comparison of this with other forms reveals some very interesting facts. First.—The second specitic characteristic (4), namely, the size, is known to vary easily and rapidly under changed conditions of food and climate, and other environ-conditions. Ina com- parison of forms of different geographical or geological areas, the difference in size may be safely regarded as of varietal im- portance, but taken alone is scarcely of specific importance, using species in the strictly morphological sense. in the present case, in the layer in which the species first ap- pears, the individuals are very abundant,—and actually massed _together,—the majority of them being as large as the average, some larger than any yet observed above the bottom layer ; but also with these are many small individuals, less than half the size of ordinary specimens, and others still smaller, running down to minute ones, scarcely the size of a pin-head. In these smaller individuals, are seen characters relating them to varieties of Spirifer fimbriatus, Conrad, of the Hamilton beds below ; but they are plainly young or immature forms of the WS. levis series, being found from the smallest through the intermediate to the normal adult S. levis. A young specimen of S. jfimbriatus, C., from the Tully lime- stone of the upper Hamilton, is seen in the University collection, which could not be certainly distinguished, specifically, from the young of S. /evis of the Portage, if the two occurred in the. same bed. I am inclined to consider the forms called Orthis satinncabora in the 10th Regents’ Report, and identified as Améocelia in the 13th Report, and as Spirifer in Hall’s final Report on the Brachiopods (Pal. of N. Y., vol. 4, p. 234), as only an extreme variety of the typical form, called Spirifer fimbriatus, Con. It ranges throughout the Hamilton, but, as specific names are now applied may as well keep the specific name. 146 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. However, the normal type of S. fimbriatus, (see pl. XIV), of the Hamilton and earlier periods, is distinctly plicated, and the series of radiating lines are coarse, and the lines themselves strong and wider apart, and the species does not average half the size of a typical S. /evis. There is another fact suggestive further of | the relationship: the variations noticed in the individuals of S. fimbriatus include an obscuring or obliteration of all those special characters by which the typical forms of the two species differ conspicuously from each other. The form and proportions (@) vary in fimbriatus to those characteristic of Jevis,—typical fimbriatus being much broader than typical levis. (0) The size is decidedly greater in S. levis ; but the Corni- ferous representative of fimbriatus is larger than the Hamilton representative ; and for the great size of Jevis, we must look to some cause not yet known. (c) The beak is smaller and less over-arching in fimbriatus ;_ but in this species the beak is variable, and as the shape ap- proaches that of /evis,—(t. e., in the shorter specimens) the relative size of the beak is greater. In /evis, also, there are varieties found in which the beak is as*small and low, propor- tionately, as in some specimens of fimbriatus. The feature (d) is characteristic of fimbriatus as well as of levis. (e) The aperture is triangular and very similar in both ; but it is rare to find the pseudo-deltidium preserved in fimbriatus ; still, what traces there are of it lead us to presume that it was obtusely arching, as in levis. (7) The smoothness of surface in /evis is perhaps its most prominent specific character; but the presence of obscure pli- cations on the margin in large specimens in the lowest stratum, is strongly suggestive, and leads us to suspect that the ancestors of this form were plicated. If we study a complete series of Spirifer fimbriatus, C., we find the species, in its typical form, characterized by a few (the number varying) broadly rounding .(the prominences varying), radiating plications ; and a common variation is the disappearance of the plication from the beak and swollen part of the shell, extending far down toward the margin; and occasionally an individual may be found of full size, but a Te ey ee a a The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 147 entirely wanting radiating plications. The manner of disappear- ance is worthy of notice. The undulations of the surface, form- ing the plications, become lower and lower as the plications be- come obscure, but never in this way do they reach obliteration. We find them obliterated first in the part of the shell represent- ing the earlier stage of growth—about the beak; this (unpli- cated) area becomes greater and greater until the plications are confined to the margins, and they are obscure and’ faint,—as in the rare specimens of /@vis. The formation of folds or plications is thus seen to be a pro- cess which, in the series of individuals under consideration, begins later and later in the growth of the shell, and in the last indi- vidual has scarcely begun when maturity is reached, so that only the margins are affected,—leaving the main part of the surface free from plication. The facts that only the largest individuals of Spirifer levis, — those whose growth continued the longest,—show any trace of the plications, and that whenever they are found, it is only on the margins of these large shells, are quite consistent with the supposition that /evis is traceable genetically to S. fimbriatus of the preceding period. In regard to the seventh character (g), let us first read what Hall says of it in S. fimbriatus. “The concentric strie are studded with elongated nodes or tubercles, which are thus arranged in parallel bands, more or less contiguous, according to the distance of the concentric striae. “The elongate tubercles may perhaps more properly be re- garded as interrupted radiating strie, which, in the perfect condition of the shell, have doubtless extended in slender spines or sete. (They are termed by Mr. Conrad short longitudinal Sestric.)” - These ‘short longitudinal striw” are very characteristic of S. fimbriatus, and much coarser and stronger than in any spe- cimens of S. Jevis, but showing a tendency to become finer and - less strong in the smoother unplicated varieties of the former species. 148 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. It is a rather rare character among the species of Spirifer, and becomes a valuable mark in tracing relationship. * The species Spirifer fimbriatus, Con., is seen to be a variable species of wide range. It is traced down as far as the Oriskany, and as Prof. Hall suggests, we may recognize related forms in S. pseudolineatus and S. setigerus of the Carboniferous ; but in its so-called specific characters, it is the first of its type. In geographical range, it is recorded from New York,—throughout the State,—Canada West, Ohio, in the M1 MiseiSevep Valley, and in Virginia. + As a specific form, it seems to have reached its perfection in the Hamilton. The comparison we have made between the two species Spiri- fer levis, Hall, and &. fimbriatus, Conrad, appears to leave httle doubt that the former is, strictly speaking, a descendent of the latter; and the tracing of the marks of relationship brings the latter into line with a series of forms reaching back to the Niagara Period and forward at least to the upper part of the Carboniferous age. A study of the series of related forms has brought out many facts which may be interesting to students of Paleontology, and to some whose studies may cover a wider field ; and in the fol- lowing pages I will attempt to give in orderly manner the results of my researches. A number of species have been considered, but those in which the marks of relationship appear most distinctly are the fol- lowing :— In the Niagara period, are— Spirifer bicostatus, Vanuxem, S. crispus, Hisinger, and SS. sulcatus, His. * See Plate XXXIV, Fig. 9, Suppl. to Brit. Permian Brachiopoda, Pa- leontological Soc. Publications, and Davidson’s descriptions of the concen- tric rows of spines of S. lineatus, p. 275, 1. ¢. These tubular spines with double perforation I have detected for the first time in any American Spirifer, in a specimen of (?) Sp. fimbriatus (a frag- ment from the base of Chemung group). + I have found fragmental specimens of clearly marked Sp. fimbriatus near the base of the Chemung, with the concentric rows of surface-markings, and with about the normal number of plications of surface. The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 149 S. crispus, His., of the Coralline limestone. S. crispus, var. simplex, Hall, of the Niagara, in Indiana. S. Vanuxemi (Vanuxem), Hall, of the Lower Helderberg Tentaculite limestone, and S. cyclopterus, S. perlamellosus, S. octocostatus and S. modestus, H., all of the Lower Helder- berg. 8. Saffordi and SY. tenwistriatus, of the same period. S. tribulis, H., and rare exambles of S. fimbriatus, Con., from the Oriskany. The various forms of fimbriatus of the Corniferous and of the Hamilton periods, which might have received several specific names if they were not so well represented in individuals. S. subumbona, H., of the upper Hamilton, as well as of the calcareous bands at its base. Spirifer levis, H., of the Portage, and S. prematurus, H., in the Chemung further south. In the Carboniferous, such forms as S. pseudolineatus, ., —seligerus,—plena,—octoplicatus and—hirtus, carry on the type in this country; while in Great Britain and Europe a like series extends from the Wenlock beds of the Silurian through to the Carboniferous, and perhaps beyond ; but the specimens are not at my hand for a full comparison and tracing of the later his-— tory. In the Wenlock and following Silurian beds, are the three _ varieties called Spirifer elevatus, Dalman, S. crispus, His., and _ —suleatus, His. S. granosus, Vern., of Keyserling, in Russia may belong to the group. In the Devonian, are S. curvatus, Schl., of the Ilfracombe beds and elsewhere; Spiriferina cristata, Schl., and Sra. in- sculpta, Phil., as defined by Davidson, are prob tbly in the line, and Schnur’s aculeatus, and the S. curvatus, of the Eifel, are also representatives. In the Carboniferous, the various modifications of Spirifer glaber, Martin, and S. sulcatus, His., carry on the character of the main types. — Spirifer lineatus, with which Hall compares several of the Deyonian forms in the United States, may be connected with this line; but from the limited study I have been able to give it, I am inclined to refer it to another series of forms, beginning perhaps in S. radiatus of the Niagara. 150 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. I have mentioned a number of well characterized species, 2. @., forms which taken in their separate geological horizon are dis- tinguishable from other forms in the same horizon. In making a comparative study of them, facts of interest are brought out in regard to each, which may be laid before readers by pre ing them in the form of notes on each of the species. * It will be noticed, that I use the term species in the restricted modern sense, as a morphological species only. Our studies may throw some light -on the nature of species in the broader — and more theoretical sense. Spirifer crispus, Hisinger (not of Linn.), (Vet. Akad. Hans- lingen, tab. VII, fig. 4, 1826, figured by Davidson in Brit. Sil. Brach., pl. X, figs. 13—15), with the associated forms, is ap- parently the earliest type of S. fimbriatus and setigerus, ete., of later times in America, and of forms under other names in Great Britain, Europe and elsewhere. ‘This species is described by Hall as Delthyris staminea, in Geol. Rept. of 4th Dist. N. Y., pp. 105, 106, and figured, 1. ec. fig. 3, and later it was more fully described and figured, and referred to S. crispus, in Vol. 2 of Pal. of N. Y., p: 262) figaia, i-k, of Pl. LIV. Whether or not this form, with its closely re- lated ones, is identical with those of the upper Llandovery beds, and up to the Ludlow formations in Great Britain, called Spiri- fer crispus, His., by Davidson, and SS. elevatus, Dalman, of the upper Llandovery, these are without doubt the representatives on this side the Atlantic of the European spirifers included un- der the specific names elevatus, Dalman, —crispus, His., and —silcatus, His., and present like variation and like similarity, and also were widely distributed and abundant. The following are the main peculiarities of the species as * Further study has shown that the genus Spirifer began and continued __ in about four well-marked kinds, i. e., types, with the variations of each. : The three principal types are radiatus, crispus, and sulcatus,—and I am inclined to regard Cyrtia exporrecta, Wahl. as the central type of the fourth kind. The corniferous species Spirifer maia of Billings, although at first glance appearing to belong to the S. erispus kind, I think (1 have not seen good specimens) is a representative of the S. radialus combination of specific characters. . The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 151 _ known in America, identified by Hall as the true Spirifer _crispus, Hisinger. It occurs in the Niagara shales in the west- _ ern part of New York State; most abundantly about Lockport and Lewistown. 1. It is of sub-rhomboidal form, rounded at the sides; the ven- tral valve is semi-circular. This peculiar shape includes a short _ hinge-line, either as short or shorter than the greatest width of the shell. 2. The valves are unequal in convexity, ‘‘ very unequal,” the ventral one extremely convex, the dorsal not so much so. (This character is also seen in well-preserved specimens of S. levis.) 3. Beaks moderately extended and incurved oyer the hinge- area: they may be much separated, or approach each other closely, making— 4. A hinge-area, either broad and prominent or low and narrow ; this latter being the case when the hinge is extended, and then the form approaches that of S. saleatus. The normal or typical form of crispus may be considered as possessed of a high cardinal area, the extremities of which are short. 5). The aperture is triangular and rather narrow, and is not _ covered with a pseudo-deltidium, in specimens preserved. ‘This - is most likely due to the fact, that the pseudo-deltidium was ~ not completely calcified in the living animal, and during fossili- zation was lost. The radiating plications are few,—from four to eight,—but _ only slightly elevated and rounded, and often obsolete, and the inside casts are smooth. As to this variation, note erispus of the Coralline limestone, and the var. simplex of Indiana and _ the West, also the smooth type, dicostatus. _ The radiating folds are marked by fine concentric lines ; these, by aid of a magnifying glass, are seen to answer to Hall’s description—‘and upon the strie, the surface is thickly _ set with minute setose points, giving a semi-striated appearance _ to the surface. This feature is not ordinarily visible, and it _ appears to have been abraded by very slight attrition.” Hall’s _ Pal. of N. Y., Vol. 2, p. 262. Hall finds no reason to separate this from the Swedish species, nor from that of the Wenlock of _ Eneland. S. bicostatus, Conrad, differs from crispus in the more dis- 152 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. tinct imbrication of the concentric strie; in the fewer plica- tions, which resemble rather one broad fold on each side of the sinus than plications, and these rarely reach the beak; the hinge-line is shorter, giving a shorter and rather high area,’ and the rounding of the lateral margins leads to the character observed in /e@vis, and other smooth forms—of a sudden cury- _ ing of the striz at the extremities. This appears to be the type of the \. levis, H., of the Port- age, and S. curvatus, and especially glaber, Martin, of the foreign Devonian and Carboniferous; but here in the Niagara it is closely associated with S. crispus, may be readily con founded with it, and series of specimens connecting the two forms can be made so complete that theoretically we may pre- sume the two are but varieties; but we must note particularly that the size of each of these Niagara species is very small com- pared with either S. levis or S. glaber. Spirifer sulcatus, Hisinger, is a name applied to specimens on the other side the Atlantic, which undoubtedly are but varieties of the typical form erispus, His., of which the pecu- liarities are a greater extension of the hinge-line, an increase in the number and abruptness of the plications, and a lower and more extended hinge-aréa, and with this, a less prominent beak. In this country (and perhaps also in Britain and Europe), some of the specimens identified and described as S. szlcatus, His., are undoubtedly quite distinct from the group of which SS. crispus, His., may be taken as the type. If we take, then, the median form of S. erispus, His., of the Niagara as type, we see three distinct varieties : 1st. S. crispus, His., with its rounded plications, three or four at least on each side of the median sinus, short hinge-line, and shape rather broader than long; a moderate beak ; area mode-_— rate but well defined, and not extending to the extreme lateral margin of the shell. ; 2d. WS. bicostatus, Con., (and some specimens of crispus, His., the var. simplex of Hall,) in which the beak is prominent, the breadth nearly equal to the length, the surface either quite smooth, or with but one or two plications on each side of the sinus, and these not reaching to the beak, and, when present, the plications are broad and only slightly elevated folds; the The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 158 beaks overarching, area high and short, and decidedly shorter than the greatest width of the shell, and the strie suddenly turning in to meet the shortened hinge-line, 3d. The type seen in some specimens of so-called S. sudca- tus, His. he typical characters of this variety are an extended hinge-line,—a shorter shell,—the area low and produced later- ally, the beak moderate and not overarching,—the plications more than four on each side of the sinus, and abruptly rounded and distinct. I would separate those with sharp angular plica- tions and prominent imbricated concentric striz, as a distinct species (probably the true S. swlcatus, His.), which present also the sharp and often considerably produced hinge-line and area. These are the three prominent directions of variation noted in the first appearance of the combination of characters which marks either one of the varieties. Dayidson’s species (see Brit. Sil. Brach., pp. 91, 92—98) from the Wenlock, ete., are identified somewhat differently from those of Hall. The ribs of S. sulcatus are not angular, asin Hall’s species; and Davidson’s descriptions, as well as his figures, show the close relationship between the three species called S. salea- tus, His., 1. c. 91, Fig. 4—6, Pl. X; S. elevatus, Dalman, |. ec. apebiece (li Pl IX; and S. crisps, His., \. ¢. 97, Figs. 13—15, Pl. X. Davidson recognises the likeness of varieties of these species, and appears to regard them as distinct,—rather yielding to the custom of paleontologists than on account of certain marks of distinction (see 1. c.). S. erispus and S. elevatus, | think may be united, and while S. sulcatus may be distinct, as identified for part of the speci- mens so-called in Great Britain and America, I judge that this too, in part, is but one of the varieties of the typical form which appears with much yariation in Britain and America, and yet, with all its variation, with well-marked ‘‘specific characters.” Much more might be said in regard to this point, but I lack the specimens needed for examination ; and without consulting the specimens themselves, we must leave the strict boundaries unde- fined, and simply recognise the presence of the specific form with all the variational peculiarities in Britain and Europe. In Spirifer crispus of the other side of the Atlantic, we see 154 The Life-History of Spirsfer levis. the same characters and peculiarities: the shape and its varia- tions ;—the hinge-line, as to relative length compared with that of the shell;—the area and the aperture with its extent and variation ; the swollen nature of the valves and the greater prominence of the ventral valve ;—the prominent median fold and the rounded nature of the side-plications, varying in num- ber, but always few, and often being obsolete near the side-mar- gin and on the beak. The surface markings, too, 7. e. the radiating and concentric strie, are characteristic,—the former being the prints or bases of systems of spines, only scen by the microscope. ‘The size also agrees with that of the representa- tives in the Niagara rocks of America. Before considering S. cwrvatus and related species, let us notice the two species provisionally put by Davidson in D’Or- bigny’s subgenus Spiréferina. Spiriferina cristata, Schlotheim (sp.) var. (Brit. Dev. Brach., p. 46, Pl. VI, Figs. 11—15, also Brit. Perm. Brach., p. 17, and Carb. Monogr., pp. 38 and 226). Davidson expresses himself as not able clearly to distinguish this species from either Sna. cristata of the Carboniferous and Permian or Spirifer crispus of the Silurian ; and he says—‘‘ The question of the origin and recurrence of the Spiriferina we are at present describing” (Suna. cristata, Devonian, |. c., p. 47), ‘‘is one of some diffi- culty, demanding considerable attention and further research. It is an exceedingly variable shell, being small (adult) in some localities or strata, while in others it has attaimed considerably larger dimensions” (at Lowe and Cornwall large, and at Darting- ton small). ‘It is my strong impression that we must look for its first appearance or origin in the Silurian time, and that it continued to be represented, with some slight modifications, in the Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, and perhaps up to the Jurassic period” (I. ¢., p. 47). Davidson identifies the Scottish Carboniferous Sna. cristata and Sna. octoplicata with this species, and these with Schnur’s species Spirifer aculeatus. 'The species Spiriferina insculpta, Phillips (sp.) var. (PI. VI, Figs. 16 and 17, |. c., p. 48), appears to be also closely related to these species. In the Silurian monograph, we find the variety with angular plications, and more of them, called S. salcatus, while S. crispus eT ee nee ne . The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 155 has rounded ribs and shorter hinge-line (see S. crispus, His.). While this variety has persisted, also the variety in which the ribs became obsolete and the size increased, is common in Britain and Europe, in Devonian and Carboniferous strata; and a care- ful study and comparison of the American and European forms is much to be desired. Spirifer glaber, Martin, of the Carboniferous, seems to have no resemblance to the Sna. cristata just mentioned ; but if we look back into the Devonian, we find Spirifer curvatus, Sch. (Brit. Dev. Brach., p. 39, Pl. IX), which presents the characters of form, proportions and markings seen in that variety of iS. eris- pus in which the ribs were obsolete and the hinge-line shortened, (and may not Fig. 1, Pl. VII, called S. wndifera, be but a variety of S. cwrvatus ?) When we read Davidson’s description, we learn that, except for the surface-markings, he would identify this species (S. cur- vatus) with the Carboniferous S. glaber; and when we compare our Devonian S. /evis with them, and note the close resem- blance to the Carboniferous form of Britain, and besides dis- cover the very surface-markings in question on our S. levis, I think we are justified in uniting the three species as varieties of one form.* We thus trace a supposed relationship (see, in * Since this paper was written, Mr. Thos. Davidson, F. R. S., has very kindly sent me two specimens of S. glaber, Martin, from the Carboniferous limestone, Yorkshire, showing concentric and radiating strie. Mr. David_ son writes that they are the only specimens he had seen possessing these surface-markings. One specimen is beautifully perfect, and shows very fine concentric striz marking the whole surface. ‘The microscope (a pocket glass) reveals what appear to be very minute and faint pittings of the surface, very close together, arranged in lines run_ _ ning diagonally and crossing each other. The other specimen shows coarse radiating strie, convex, and in several cases dividing into two, which con- tinue parallel and together to the margin. They appear to run deeper un- _ der the surface as they approach the margin, and their exposure appears to be caused by the scaling off of some of the shell near the margin. The former are undoubtedly the markings noted by Prof. L. de Koninck, and mentioned by Davidson in Suppl. to Brit. Carb. Brach., p. 274. ‘‘On _ observe 4 sa surface des ponctuations bien marquées et disposées en quin- -conce sur presque toute son étendue.” 156 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. this connection, Hall’s remark in first clause of p. 237, 4th vol., Pal. N. Y.) from our Spirifer levis through S. fimbriatus, and others, to the Silurian S. crispus, and recognise the same grades and variations in the forms appearing on the other side of the Atlantic, wp to the Carboniferous forms. What does this series of observations suggest ? Whatever theoretical description we may give to species, here are, in the first place, an abundance of individual organisms” whose remains are found in the Upper Silurian rocks of Europe, Great Britain and America, presenting a few clearly-marked distinctive characters, variously developed in the individual forms, but so grading in the several varieties as to cause careful naturalists to associate them as varieties of a single species. There are well-marked typical characters distinguishing all the individuals from other forms of the same genus, together with great variability of the characters themselves. In the upper part of the Upper Silurian we find the same typical characters, with a greater permanence of one or other of the variations; but still, in the variations occurring later in the Corniferous and Hamilton, we have the main type represented with some variations strongly marked and seeming to be fixed, but still recognised as varieties simply. In the Portage, we see under peculiar conditions a solitary race of the type with greatly exaggerated size,—a luxuriant form but still presenting the typical characters of the second varie- tal type. In the Carboniferous we meet with several well-marked va- rieties, but no feature which did not appear in the early form except large size, which is evidently a mark of good nourishment and other good conditions of growth. ‘This latter seems to be a character of most of the Carboniferous forms of Brachiopods which have lived on from earlier times. There may be unknown. characters to distinguish these forms, but of the characters that are preserved we have evidence that in the earliest form, the type, S. crispus, His. of the Niagara, etc. (with its varieties), are found all those which afterward appeared in the later repre- sentatives. These characters appeared in combination in a single group —" a Se ve The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 15 ~> of individuals, living in one class of conditions, im such circum- stances as seem to warrant our calling them one physiological species in the sense of being able fertilely to cross with each other, this being the explanation of the gradation of one form into the other noted by Davidson. This presumed—that we had a single species to begin with—we have, by intercrossing and by local conditions modifying the offspring, well-defined groups, which would be called races if we knew their history, but which are called species because they appear at so widely divided geological periods. These separate groups, however, develop no new characters, but in those appearing at each stage are seen fixed and apparent only varietal characters of the original form, with such modifi- cations as poor, or rich, or varied food may give to animals we now may modify. There is nothing of a specitic character evolv- ed in this series of forms which did not appear in the first forms, but there is every evidence for the belief that the species has lived through this long geological time without losing its char- acter, and that all that has resulted from great time and change of conditions has been the fixation into race-groups of the origi- nal variable characters of the species. _ The species, at its first appearance in the Silurian, presented a decidedly new combination of characters for the genus, and also much variation. When once these specific though variable forms appeared, they lived till the variations which could be played upon them were exhausted; and the species ceased to live and became extinct either near the close of the Carboniferous or not till later in the Mesozoic. Some of the races or varieties may die out, but they reappear again and again till there are such strong contrasts that it is difficult to see even generic resemblance between them. The variety or so-called species of the Niagara Period, which seems most closely to correspond. to the form of S. /evis, is that mentioned in Vanuxem’s Report of the 3d District of New York, p. 91, and called by Conrad Orthis bicostata, but not de- scribed by him (see note in Pal. N. Y., Vol. 2, p. 263). This was evidently a local variety, as Hall fails to discover it at any considerable distance from the original locality; and what is re- markable is the similarity of conditions, as seen in the csv/ation 158 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. of the form, the concretionary structure of the beds, and the relative abundance of the individuals in the case of both species (S. dicostatus and S. levis). Hall speaks of the only locality in which he has discovered this peculiar form, as ‘*Vanuxem’s lo- cality in Oneida Co.” He finds them on the surface of a thin layer of hmestone. Vanuxem describes the species as occuring m ‘‘slate” (shale?); and as in the case of S. levis, so of S. bicos- tatus, Hall failed to find perfect specimens. The distinction observed by Hall, and upon which he bases the specific identity of 8. dicostatus, is the absence or partial obliteration of the radial plications; when present, these are obscure or at the margins. This character, only carried to a greater extreme, is recognized in S. levis. However, as far as my observation goes, the presence of plications at all, in the latter form, is confined to a few over- large individuals occurring in the lowest known layers in which the species is found. I have not seen the character on any spec- imens occurring in strata above that in which it first appears. Whenever the plications are present, they appear as rather faint undulations of the margin, extending rarely as far as half way to the beak. May we not reasonably regard them as the trace of ancestral plications, seen as a variable character in WS. fimbriatus, here becoming obliterated? It is not the beginning of a new character, but the dropping of one of the typical, though variable characters of the old but still continuing race. When we look forward to the Carboniferous representative we see S. glaber, with occasionally a trace of plications on the margins (see Davidson’s monograph). The smooth uuplicated form is a variety of one which was typically plicated. S. erispus and its full complement of varieties appear, so far as this char- acter is concerned, to run through all grades of development at the very outset among the Niagara representatives. Hall also speaks of the shorter hinge-line, and the abrupt cury- ing of the strie at the extremities,--two characters which are associated with each other,—a fact suggesting their relation (See Plate XIV.). We explain it in the following way :— We presume that normally, as in the typical form, there is greater lateral extension of the hinge-line than in the unplicated forms,—and with this character, a straightening out of the con- . came \ Paes ee The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 159 centric lines of growth at the lateral extremities of the shell; with the obliteration of the longitudinal plications, there is a co- ordinate expansion of the front and lateral margin, causing a relative shortening of the cardinal margin and a shorter bending of the concentric striz to meet it at the extremities,—and at the same time an increased growth upwards of the hinge-area. So that we find- high area,—short hinge-line,—abrupt curving of the lines of growth at the cardinal extremities,—and tendency to the obliteration of radiate plications,—to be co-ordinate fea- tures of the typical form whose history we are here studying. By examination of other Spirifers, we discover great variety of shape, due to variation of hinge-extension and elevation of area, with sufficient constancy of other characters to constitute good species :—for instance, S. mucronatus, S. medialis and S. disyunctus, and the allied forms to which each may be sup- posed to stand in the relation of types. A comparison of the varieties of each suggests that the typical form of S. mucrona- tus has a widely extended hinge, low area, and produced ex- _ tremities;—that the type of S. medialis has a shorter hinge-line, not produced into a point, with moderately high area. A reference of the Portage Spirifer levis directly to an origin m the S. fimbriatus of the preceding period, seems to need no argument further than the presentation of the facts, and a com- parison of it with the various forms, earlier and later, with which it is most closely related. But a deeper study of the facts leads us to an equally clear conclusion that S. fimbriatus is only a variety of still earlier forms, and that the characters marking each variety appear as variational forms of the early type, and that during the passage from one to the other no assumption of new characters has taken place,—such as would not be regarded as purely varietal among living organisms, consisting 1n the obliteration or obscuring of prominent charac- ters in some of the later representatives. An examination of Carboniferous forms shows the continuation of each of the typi- cal characters in some representatives of the or ginal stock. There is no evidence of crossing of breeds to produce new yarieties,—but merely a localising and interbreeding of varieties, _ to the production of greater prominence and fixity of certain characters. 160 The Life-History of Spirifer levis. The study of these Spirifers, in their historic relations, fur- nishes evidence of the persistence of specific characters in a vari- able condition, for which the limits of variation seem to be already fixed in the primitive form. The prominent primitive varieties appear distinctly here and there along the geological periods marking the life of the species, but neither pass out of existence nor become materially modified. The length of time is from the Upper Silurian, near the be- ginning of the life of the genus, to the Carboniferous, and it may be beyond,—extending over nearly three-quarters of the time in which the genus lived. | The following is a tabular view of the relations of the Silurian and Devonian forms of which Spirifer crispus of the Niagara in New York is the type; the tracing of the history through the European forms and higher into the Carboniferous is re- served for further study. In the table, lateral extension is ex- pressive of the morphological variations; each line represents one of the geological formations, which are arranged in their natural order; and the name of each species is placed in the position on the line representing its supposed relation to the typical form of S. crispus. , Cem Vy UE eS Rich AME ee nal a prematurus.- -- Portage: aS a aa ee levis= (23s f Famiiltomt theca: see” oe fimbriatus .--.---- subumbona Corniferous Jiceeeesasee fimbriatus -.----------- ‘ : Oriskany: iit, yon (ol) Sing ee see, tribulise 2s. N. Y. & Tenn. .. Saffordi (pars. ) q Lower Helderberg Moving cre ING SYiOR Ge ous eee ee Vaniixeniy eee Misballe dys). SOs be One ess 2 ikl ae ee crispus .----- Niagara \ limestone ----sulcatus (pars) .------. crispus ---.- bicostatus. ---- Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. 161 XI.—On the Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. BY Ne hy) BRERTON: Read April 4th, 1881. Richmond County, or Staten Island, is the most southeastern portion of the State of New York. It is bounded on the north by Newark Bay and.the Kill von Kull; on the east by the Up- per and Lower Bays of New York, and the Narrows; on the south by Raritan Bay, and on the west by “Arthur Kill. The area thus enclosed by these bodies of water forms an irregular triangle, and according to the best authorities contains about fifty-nine square miles. Its population, as given by the census of 1880, is 38,994, or 661 per square mile. Its length is thir- teen and one-half miles, and its breadth about seven miles. Topography.—Vhe surface of the county is decidedly rough. A range of hills, having an average height of over two hundred feet, extends from the northeastern extremity at New Brighton, through the central part of the island to the county-seat, Rich- mond. ‘These hills are six miles long, vary from one and one- half to two and one-quarter miles wide, and are erupipedt with magnesian rocks. Another well-marked series of hills begins at the Narrows, and ranges westwardly until it meets the first mentioned ridge near Garretson’s Station. It follows the course of this ridge as far as New Dorp, and there diverging from it runs in a southerly direction to Prince’s Bay. Here these hills bend to the west- ward for a short distance, but again take a southerly course and end on the shore of Arthur Kill opposite Perth Amboy. This second series of hills is about one mile aud a half wide, near the _ Narrows, and rises to a height of one hundred and fifteen feet in places, while between the Great Kills and Prince’s Bay their width is as great as three miles, but they are seldom over seventy- five feet high. These elevations are composed of rounded bould- 162 * (reology of Richmond County, N.Y. ers and pebbles, gravel, clay and sand,—with little or no order of arrangement,—which materials have been brought from the north and northwest by the great glacier which, in post-tertiary times, overspread North America south to about the fortieth parallel, and had its southern extension along the Atlantic coast on Staten Island. East of the Narrows, these hills form the backbone of Long Island; and west of Perth Amboy, they have been traced entirely across the State of New Jersey, and indeed all the way to Missouri and Kansas. ‘They are what is known as the terminal moraine of the North American glacier. East of the ridge of magnesian rock, and south of the moraine, we have some nearly level plains; these are well shown near New Dorp and Garretson’s Stations, and again at the extreme southern end of the island. ‘The surface is also quite level from New Springville to Mariners’ Harbor. Extensive areas of salt meadow occur along the Lower Bay near New Creek and the Great Kills, along Arthur Kill from Rossville to Port Richmond, and small patches near Totten- ville. There are no streams of very considerable size on Staten Island, but brooks and ponds are abundant. The largest of the latter is known as Silver Lake, and is situated high up on the mag- nesian hills, one mile and a half west of Stapleton. According to the observat.ons of Mr. Charles Keutgen, the total rainfall in inches for the last ten years, at Stapleton, has been as follows :— NSO eac.oo i Lovo onde 1876: 46.09 1879: Aye 171: 53.45 | 1874: 49.68 | 1877: 42.90 || SSOR a ieieaes 1872: 45.00 | 1875: 45.00 | 1878: 58.62 Literature of the Subject.—The subject of the Geology of Richmond County has been considered principally by the follow- ing writers :— 3 W. B. Mather, in the ‘‘ Geology of the First District of New York,” refers to Staten Island in a number of different places. Mather considered the clays and sands of the southern part of the island to be of Tertiary age. and the magnesian rocks to be of igneous origin; both of which conclusions are now replaced: by others, probably nearer the truth. Ceology of Richmond County, No ¥. 163 Issachar Cozzens, Jr.: ** A Geological History of Manhattan or New York Island,” N. Y., 1843. ‘This book gives a section across Staten Island, and a description of the different forma- tions found thereon. Prof. Geo. H. Cook, in the ** Geology of New given * 1868, and in ** Report on Clays,” 1878, refers to the serpentine, trap- rock, sandstone and clays of Staten Island, and to the terminal glacial moraine crossing it. (reology.—We have within the limits of our territory, strata of Archean, of Triassic, of Cretaceous, of Quaternary, and of Modern Eras; these will be considered in the order of their ages, beginning with the oldest. ARCH BAN STRATA. Granitic Rocks.—True granite occurs on the shore of the Upper New York Bay, about four hundred feet southwest of the Tompkinsville steamboat landing, and directly in front of the old building known as Nautilus Hall. ‘The surface of rock ex- posed at low tide is about eighty feet wide by fifty feet long; at high-water mark the rock disappears beneath a hill of drift some fifteen feet in thickness. A little more of the same rock is exposed at a point about two hundred feet south of the main outcrop ; but everywhere else on Staten Island the granite is covered by newer formations. ‘There is reason to believe, however, that it underlies the magnesian rocks, and extends in a belt of unde- termined width all around the eastern edge of them, covered by the glacial drift and Cretaceous strata to an unknown depth; and that the same belt continues in a southwestwardly direction to Arthur Kill, and thence across the State of New Jersey to Trenton, where it again comes to the surface. The approximate position of this belt of metamorphic rocks is shown on the ac- companying map (Plate XV). At the exposure at Tompkinsville this granite is very coarsely crystalline in structure, and for that reason could never be satis- factorily employed for building purposes, even were it accessible in quantity. The feldspar is orthoclase, occurs in large masses, and is greatly in excess of the other two constituents ; the quartz yaries in color from dark brown to nearly white; what mica 164 (reology of Richmond County, N. ¥. there is, appears to be muscovite. In places, the last named mineral is absent, the rock being then a kind of pegmatite or graphic granite. No stratification is observable, but the surface of the rock outcrop dips about fifteen degrees to the east. Ma- ther calls this granite primary, and to the best of our present knowledge it belongs to the oldest geological formation in North America. Steatitie Rocks.—As before mentioned, magnesian rocks, ser- pentines, form the tops, at least, of the main series of hills on Staten Island. It is probable that this rock originally was of very considerable thickness, for a large amount must have been removed by erosion; but yet no granite nor gneiss, which are as- sumed to underlie it, has been seen in place within the serpen- tine area, which is estimated at about 13.5 square miles. The present thickness it is impossible to estimate accurately, but judging from the exposures, I should place it over one hundred feet. The most eastern exposed boundary of the serpentine is clearly and unmistakably marked by a series of very sharp slopes, which are nearly continuous from Tompkinsyville to Richmond, and in some places are as straight and regular as they could be con- structed. This regularity of the slope seems to be quite charac- teristic of these hills, and is not the least element of their beauty. How far east of the foot of these hills the serpentine ‘extends is not known, but it is probably not a great distance, as the granite at 'Tompkinsville occurs within a few hundred feet of it. The southern end of the ridge descends rather gradually, and near Richmond is lost under the Freshkill marshes. The western boundary of the formation, or more properly the eastern limit of the Triassic sandstone which rests upon it, cannot be accu- rately located, as there are no outcrops, and the line as drawn -on the map must be considered as only approximately correct. The magnesian rock varies in color from hight green to nearly black, and in texture from compact to quite earthy—much of it being fibrous. Its specific gravity is about 2.55, and in chemi- cal composition it is all a hydrated magnesian silicate. ‘The best exposures are at several places around the base of Pavilion Hill at Tompkinsville ; in cuttings for streets in the village of New iin (reology of Richmond County, N.Y. 165 Brighton ; near the school-house at Garretson’s Statiow; on Meissner Avenue near Richmond, and near Egbertville. The highest point of the ridge is nearly opposite Garretson’s Station, ‘and about half-way across the hills, where the elevation, as measured by an aneroid barometer, is four hundred and twenty ‘feet. There are a number of interesting minerals associated with the ‘serpentine rocks; the following species and varieties have been collected at Pavilion Hill, and in New Brighton :—Compact Serpentine, Fibrous Serpentine (‘‘ Amianthus,” ‘“‘Chrysotile’) , Marmolite, Silvery Tale, Apple-green Tale, Gurhofite, Dolomite, Calcite, und Chromite. Pink Talc and Deweylite are reported by Prof. D. 8. Martin, and Magnesite by Prof. Dana (Mineral- ogy, 1868, p. 774), as found on Staten Island. It is stated by Mather that magnesic hydrate (Brucite) occurs there, but none has been found recently. The fibrous variety of the serpentine has been very generally known as asbestus; this mineral, however, is properly a fibrous amphibole, and does not occur on Staten Is- land. ‘These minerals must be regarded as products of metamor- phism, and were formed during the period when this action was in progress. | The metamorphic rocks of Staten Island are apparently a southern continuation of those of Hoboken, N. J., and New York island; the facts from which this conclusion is drawn are as follows: First.—The strike of the rocks is nearly the same at both places, and the direction of the Staten Island ridge would, if . prolonged, meet the Hoboken exposure of serpentine at Castle Point. Second.—The serpentine les west of the granitic rocks at both places. i hird.—Although the texture of the serpentine at Hoboken and that of Staten Island is slightly different, yet their chemical composition and associated mineral species are very similar. Pourth.—lt is highly probable, though not proven, that the 166 Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. serpentine at Tompkinsville overlies the granitic rocks as it does at Jersey City. ‘This can only be definitely ascertained by bor- ings, as the contact of the two rocks cannot be observed. We have the negative evidence, however, that were the serpentine older than the granite, the latter would probably be found in| greater quantity, and in more localities than it really is. Hence the probability is that the two rocks have the same relative ver- tical position on Staten Island that they have at Jersey City; and they are so indicated on the accompanying maps and sections (Plates XV and XVI). Fifth.—Ellis and Bedloe’s Islands, in the Upper Bay, are directly between the two outcrops on the line of strike, and are said to be underlaid by gneiss; but no very definite information is obtainable on this point. As to the origin of the serpentine rocks, I have no new theory to advance, and consider the one which regards them as meta- morphosed highly magnesian limestones to be more in accord- ance than any other with the facts as observed. The reasons for this opinion are as follows :— First.—It is highly improbable that they were igneous in origin, because they contain about fourteen per cent. of water, are associated with gneissic rocks which we know are metamor- phic, and are stratified,—although the stratification can only be distinguished at a few places, and there not very plainly, on ac- count of the cleavage planes which cut the rock in all directions. Second.—They are certainly not unchanged sediments, be- cause there are no magnesian silicates known to be formed as sediments on such a large scale as these strata present ; therefore they must be either metamorphosed sediments or metamor- phosed metamorphic rocks. Third.—These rocks could not have been sandstones or shales, because they would have become quartzites or feldspathic rocks by metamorphism ; and while serpentine certainly is the result of the decomposition of hornblende in some cases, the extent of the formation on Staten Island would render this method of re so Geology of Richmond Coynty, No Ye “16% formation very improbable; hence, by this method of reasoning, we have nothing but limestone to refer the original condition of these strata to. Fourth.—In addition to these negative considerations. we Jhave the direct positive evidence that strata of magnesian lime- stone gradually passing into serpentine have been observed (see Jukes’ Manual of Geology, page 167), and that the presence of -Jime-minerals in the rock may be regarded as indicative of the former presence of greater quantities of calcic carbonate, which has been removed by the dissolving action of the metamorphos- ing waters, which doubtless held carbonic acid and silica in solution. We may then outline the probable origin of these rocks in the following manner :—The strata now consisting of serpentine were deposited as highly magnesian limestones; by metamor- phic agencies this material has been brought in contact with — highly heated carbonic acid and silica-bearing solutions, which, by removing the greater part of the ealcic carbonate, and alter- ing the magnesic carbonate to a silicate, have left the rocks in the condition of hydrated magnesian silicates. During or at the close of this period of metamorphism, the eastern edges of the strata were tilted up, forming an anticlinal axis, while the extension of the formation to the westward was subsequently coyered by the shale and sandstone deposited from the Triasyic ' The true geological age of this belt of metamorphic rocks, which runs through Staten and New York Islands, extends far northward through the New England States, where it has a wide expansion, and has been traced sonthward as far as North Carolina, is not definitely known. There have been three prin- cipal theories advanced in regard to their antiquity ; these are— - First.—'Vhat these rocks are of the same age as the Highlands of New Jersey and the Adirondack Mountains, or of Lower Laurentian age. Second.—TVhat they belong to the so-called Montalban sys- tem, one of the several divisions of the Upper Laurentian distin- guished by Dr. T. 8. Hunt and others. } 168 (Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. Third.—Vhe theory recently advanced by Prof. J. D. Dana (Am. Jour. Sei., [II] Vol. XX, pp. 21, 194, 359: 450))ieim which he claims that they are of Lower Silurian age. My own opinion is, that they will ultimately be found to be Laurentian, and only another fold of the strata forming the New Jersey Highlands; but the object of this thesis is not to discuss this much-disputed point in American geology. TRIASSIC FORMATION. Strata of Triassic age extend over the parts of the county bounded by the assumed western edge of the serpentine rocks, the submerged gneissic belt, Arthur Kill and Newark Bay. This area contains about 14.5 square miles. The rocks consist of red ferruginous shales and sandstones, which dip to the north- west, and are broken through by a dike of diabase or trap-rock. They are in part the eastern extension of the Triassic strata which cover such a large portion of New Jersey. Shales and Sandstones.—These rocks are exposed at but two places, to my knowledge, and there in but very small quantities. These are on Shooter’s Island, at the mouth of Newark Bay, and on the adjacent shore, and were recorded by Mather. Here the strata consist of shaly red micaceous sandstone, differing in no essential particular from that so abundantly exposed in East- ern New Jersey. No fossils have hitherto been found in these rocks on Staten Island, and the surfaces exposed are not sufficient to warrant any great expenditure of time or labor in search for them. Diabase,-—Trap-rock.—TVhe diabase ridge that disappears be- neath the Kill von Kull at Bergen Point, N. J., cuts through the red sandstone of Staten Island from Port Richmond to the Freshkill marshes, and appears as a long, low, round-backed hill, having a general strike of S. 40° W., thus being nearly parallel with the serpentine. Towards its southern end, its ele- vation is so little more than that of the sandstone that the posi-. tion it occupies cannot well be distinguished. The length of this diabase outcrop is about five and three-quarter miles, and > ed a? ie Ceology of Richmond County. N.Y. 169 its width, measuring from its assumed furthest eastern extension to where the sandstone coyers it, averages less than one half mile. Both the eastern and western boundaries of this rock, however, are so obscured by drift that their exact positions can- not be determined, and the outcrop may be wider or narrower at any point than is indicated on the map. The only places at,which the diabase is exposed so as to be easily studied, are at and near the so-called ** granite” quarries at Graniteville, and near Port Richmond. The rock is a not a granite, but a coarsely crystalline diabase, mainly composed of augite and a triclinic feldspar, which is probably labradorite. Tt has been found in well-diggings within the area indicated on the map, in thé water near the junction of the Fresh Kills and Arthur Kill at Linoleumville, and outcrops near Chelsea, on the road to Springville. It will be noticed that Linoleumville is just at the northern edge of the submerged Archean belt, and near the junction of the Triassic and Cretaceous forma- tions. The same relative position of the rocks may be seen where this trap-sheet again comes to the surface, as it does about six miles southwest of the city of New Brunswick, N. J. In fact the trap-dykes seem to shun the exposed Archzean rocks and cling closely to the Triassic, none being found outside of the red sandstone area. _ The explanation of this curious fact is, as has long since been pointed out, that the strata composing the filling of the Triassic basin are weaker than a like amount of the metamorphic rocks surrounding it, and hence offer less resistance to the intrusion of trap-dykes, which consequently passed through the sediment- ary rock rather than through the harder, stronger gneisses and granites which border it. Now, between the New Jersey Trias and that of the Connecticut Valley, we have a fold of these. metamorphic gneisses and granites, but not a single trap out- burst. This would seem to indicate that this fold existed be- fore the deposition of the sandstone and the subsequent intru- sion of the diabase, only very much higher than it is now ; and hence it is improbable that these Triassic rocks ever covered the Archean folded strata, forming a Triassic arch from New Jersey to Connecticut, as has been supposed by some geologists ; for, we should expect, if the Archean rocks had been folded after 170 Geology of Richmond County, NV. ¥. the deposition of the sandstone upon them, and the latter rock subsequently removed by erosion, to find the intervening space between New Jersey and Connecticut cut by trap-dykes, while in fact none have yet been observed. * CRETACEOUS FORMATION. The Cretaceous formation, more or less covered by glacial and modified drift and salt meadows, extends through all parts of the county lying east and southeast of the Archean rocks. The area underlaid by it is therefore about.28.5 square miles. The strata consist of beds of variously colored clays and sands, dipping slightly to the southeast, and Having a general strike of about 8. 45° W. ‘They are a direct continuation of the ** Plastic Clay” division of the Cretaceous, so named by the New Jersey geologists, and he at the base of the formation in eastern North America. South of the terminal glacial moraine, the strata are generally covered by a deposit of grayish-yellow sand and gravel of yari- able thickness, which is known as the Yellow Drift; this is only seen on Staten Island, in the vicinity of 'Tottenville, for the area southeast of the moraine near New Dorp and Garretson’s is covered with modified drift, imperfectly stratified. These Cretaceous strata of clay and sand in all probability — extend eastward from Richmond County on to Long Island, and perhaps underlie the latter throughout nearly its entire ex-— tent. ‘The clays are white, yellow, brown or black ; they appear on the surface at a number of places, and the purer varicties have been extensively used in the manufacture of fire-brick, drain- pipe, gas-retorts, and other refractory ware. White clays outcrop on the road just north of Rossville, at various places south of ‘Rossville and near Kreischerville, along a stream near Prince’s Bay; they have been noticed near Gif-. ford’s, and are said to occur at the bottom of a well near New Dorp. ‘They will probably be found at other places. * For a full discussion of this ‘‘Triassic Arch” question, see I. C. Russell, in Annals of this Academy, Vol. I, 1878, p. 220, and Vol..II, p. 27, 1880. re * : ~ e— we Z 2a Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. dll The white fire-clay is sometimes associated with the so-called “kaolin.” This material, which is very incorrectly named, consists of a mixture of white quartz sand with small amounts of white mica and clay, and sometimes grains of feldspar: it is known as ** kaolin” throughout the clay district of New Jersey, but of course is not a kaolin, as this term is only properly ap- plied to clays formed by the decomposition of feldspathic rocks in place. An analysis of this substance taken from the pits of C. A. Campbell & Co., near Rossville, made in the laboratory of the Geological Survey of New Jersey, and published in their Report on Clays, 1878, is as follows :— S10, 92270. per cent. Al,O, 0.70 EEO 0.70 K,O 0.39 99.45 per cent. From this association of ** kaolin” and fire-clay, it is supposed that the pits hitherto opened on Staten Island belong to the South Amboy fire-clay bed. These excavations are all south of Rossville, and quite close together. Assuming that these clays - do belong to this bed, then those which outcrop north of that village may indicate the position of the Woodbridge fire-clay bed, which hes north of the first-mentioned one in Middlesex Co., N. J. From its position, the clay near Prince’s Bay will then belong to the South Amboy bed, and that at Gifford’s to the Woodbridge bed. But these are merely suppositions. So far as is known, the strata immediately underlying 'Tottenville and the extreme southern end of the island consist of sands only, no clay having yet been dug in that vicinity. The extension of this formation to the east is indicated by an outcrop of buff-colored clay on the shore of the Lower Bay, about one half-mile south of the Elm-Tree Lighthouse. It will be noticed that all the pits from which clay has been taken are in the region between Rossville and Kreischerville. This does _ ‘not prove by any means that clay occurs only in that neighbor- hood; on the contrary, the probability is that the beds extend interruptedly across the county, but are deeply covered by the 172 Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. drift-hills of the moraine, which cover all the territory assumed to be underlaid by the clays, except that portion where pits have been excavated, which is northwest of the moraine, the ice- sheet having flowed over, or perhaps partly around it. Interstratified with, and overlying the cJays and sands, there are found thin beds of Limonite iron ore of limited extent ; this substance frequently cements the sand and gravel, and forms a | conglomerate of variable coarseness. Hitherto this iron ore has not often been discovered in sufficient quantities or of sufficient purity to warrant its use in the manufacture of iron. Lignite and pyrites are frequently found in the clay excavations. The former substance may also be seen on the shore of Arthur Kill near Rossville, and in a ravine a little northeast of the village, after slides of the banks occur; it is generally impreg- nated with the pyrites, and with copperas after exposure to the air. As the lignite dries, it cracks up into little pieces, thus destroying the texture of the fossil wood composing it, and making it very difficult to retain good specimens. No fossil leaves or shells have becn taken from the clays of Staten Island, but it is not improbable that they will be found at some futtire time, when the excavations are more advanced than at present. They are more likely to be found in buff or dark colored clays than in fire-clay. The leaves are of great interest, as they re- present the first appearance of angiospermous plants on the earth. Large quantities of them have been collected at South Amboy and other places in the clay district of New Jersey. Origin of these Deposits. —As these beds are composed of fragments of quartz, mica and clay, or decomposed feldspar, it is evident that they are the products of the disintegration of eneissic or granitic rocks. That they have not been formed in place, but have been deposited from suspension in water, is proved by their stratification and by the assorted state of the materials composing them. ‘That the waters which deposited the clays were fresh, is indicated by the absence of fossil marine organisms, and the presence of shells apparently allied to the modern fresh-water genera, in the clays of New Jersey. There has been considerable discussion in regard to the posi- tion of the gneissic rocks; it would seem probable that the Geology of Richmond Conia: NOV. 175 metamorphic rocks already described as lying just northeast of the clays, have furnished some if not all of the material for their formation. These rocks le immediately between the Triassic and Cretaceous, and were probably very much higher in those epochs than they are now, for they formed in part the southeast- ern boundary of the ‘Triassic sea. The decomposition of the gneiss would produce the materials composing the strata of sand and clay which were ‘deposited in basins along the coast, the strata lying nearest to the rae being first deposited. Where the Cretaceous formation is not covered by aes al drift, there is new living on it a pecularly southern vegetation. I have called attention to this fact in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, VII, 81, by showing how the characteristically southern flora of -the New Jersey pine-barrens extends into Richmond and Suffolk Counties, N. Y., but only on the sands of the Yellow Drift. QUATERNARY Epocn. Glacial Drift.—Deposits of material brought from the north by the ice of the glacial epoch, are found over the greater part of Staten Island, but do not entirely overspread it. The most southern terminal glacial moraine crosses Staten Tsland from the Narrows to Tottenville, and is distinctly marked by a continuous line of hills, the size and appearance of which have been already described. These hills mark the farthest southern extension of the ice-sheet, and the line along which the glacier deposited most of its burden of boulders, pebbles, sand and clay, which it had torn from the rocks in its south- ward journey. In many places these hills have the peculiar lenticular form which they assume on Long Island and in the Hastern States. The dotted line on the map extending west- wardly from Clifton and ending at Tottenville, represents the most southern and eastern position of the boulder-drift on Staten Island, and has been quite accurately determined. The ‘moraine has been partially removed by the wash of the waves from Prince’s Bay northward to near the Great Kills, leaving a bluff of variable height. 174 Geology of Richmond County, DN ES The glacier moved across Staten Island in a south-southeast- erly direction ; this is proved by the markings on the trap-rock near Port Richmond, which have about that bearing; the sur- face of this rock is also smoothed like portions of the Palisades and Newark Mountains. There are no such markings on the serpentine rocks, because they are too soft to retain them; the ice extended over their whole extent, however, with the excep- tion of a small area on ‘Todt Hill, which is east of the moraine. North and west of the morainal hills, the drift is not so abundant, rarely forming hills of any considerable size; but boulders are to be found over all this area, except where it is covered by newer formations, and the soil is often very clayey. Diabase of various degrees of coarseness is the most abundant rock in the drift; this has been carried from the Palisades and the Newark Mountains, and probably in part from the trap- dyke on Staten Island itseif. and is found over the whole drift area. : Gneiss of various kinds, largely syenitic, is perhaps the next most abundant rock, and occurs often in very large masses. One of these large boulders rests directly on the top of Fort Hill, New Brighton ; another along a roadside near Pleasant Plains, and a third worthy of notice, in a field near Huguenot. Moderately large boulders both of trap and gneiss abound on the moraine between the Narrows and Garretson’s; the gneiss has come either from the New Jersey Highlands or from much farther northward, and perhaps in part from New York Island. ‘Triassic red sandstone, carried from New Jersey or the north- western parts of the county, is often met with; a specimen im- pregnated with copper salts was obtamed from the bluff at Prince’s Bay. This locality has yielded many other interesting specimens illustrating the material brought by the glacier. Among these may be mentioned Potsdam sandstone, containing the borings of the worm Scolithus linearis ; a number of rocks of Helderberg limestone, containing Strophomena rhomboidalis, Strophodonta Becki, Spirifer macropleura, and other brachio- pods, with quantities of crinoid stems; a specimen of granite containing graphite; a cherty rock which may belong to the Corniferous, and a conglomerate of uncertain age, but perhaps of the Oneida epoch. + . ’ 4 a > a Geology of Richmond County, N. ¥. 175 A boulder of Hamilton limestone, containing Spirifer mucro- natus, occurs near Richmond, and a rock containing galena was found in some excavations near New Brighton. ‘The ice-sheet passed entirely over the clay-beds of the Creta- ceous formation in the vicinity of Rossville, apparently without deteriorating them to any great extent. At first sight, it would appear that these soft unconsolidated strata would have been greatly eroded and almost entirely removed down to the bed- rock, by such an immense mass of ice moving over them ; but although some was undoubtedly carried away, the ice seems to have swept across the clays without cutting into them very much. South and east of the dotted line on the map, already alluded to, boulders are almost entirely absent, being chiefly found in the beds of brooks, where they have been carried by water since glacial times, and are never very large. Modified Drift, or material derived from the glacier, but more or less sorted and stratified by water, may be seen on the plains lying east of the moraine from near Gifford’s to Clifton. The soil over this area is seen in well-diggings to be imperfectly stratified, and to consist of loam and sand, with few pebbles and fewer boulders. On ‘Todt Hill, near the moraine, there is quite an exteusive deposit of gravel, colored yellow by oxide of iron, which may per- haps be referred to this formation; and deposits of sand, without clay, gravel or boulders, may be seen in a few places within the morainal area. Occasionally some stratification may be seen in the morainal hills themselves, but these are generally very heterogeneous in composition. Modified drift also occurs in small quantities along the edge of the moraine near Tottenville. The true gla- cial drift is not thick in this vicinity, generally forming a mere mantle over the Cretaceous strata, and was probably deposited by a local projection of ice in advance of the main glacier. Limonite Iron Ore.—The era of the formation of these de- posits is only provisionally referred to the Quaternary. It is impossible to say how early their deposition began, but it was 176 Geology of Richmond County. N. ¥. gy 9, Ui probably long before the glacial epoch ; we are only sure that they are more modern than the magnesian rocks which they rest upon, and older than the glacial drift, which overlies them in some places. These beds of iron ore are found resting directly upon the serpentine or talcose rocks at a number of places; and where mining has been carried on, the localities are indicated on the map. All the deposits have the same general characteristics, — they are superficial, although sometimes covered by glacial drift to a variable depth. The ore consists of the hydrated ses- quioxide of iron, Limonite, and is either compact or quite earthy in texture. All that I have examined gave a yellowish-brown streak ; it is possible that there is some Hematite occurring with it, but I have never seen any ore from Staten Island which would give ared streak. ‘The Limonite is associated with color- less, green, and red quartz; it has been extensively mined near Four Corners, at several places on Todt Hill and Richmond Terrace, and along the Clove Road, and is known to occur at other places on the serpentine hills. The following analyses have been kindly furnished me by | Mr. D. J. Tysen, Jr., who is interested in the mining industry. (1) Ore from Todt Hill— He, 0; 67.50 per cent. Mg O 1 O0Es St Ca O 1.46 2b Oy 5.82 iP 0.046 Mn 1.619 Si OF 10.80 jah @ 7.73 Cr 3.00 Metallic iron, - - 47.25 per cent. The amount of Chromium is probably too high. me “Pe reology of Richmond County, N. ¥; £ (2) Ore from near Four Corners (A) Fe, 0, 19.27 (B) 76.72 A Or 1.20 0.96 Cr, O; 1.15 1.60 Mn, 0, 0.32 0.64 Si O, 5. 70 aay Ca O ine tr. Mg O ‘ite fis HO 12.39 14.76 ee ie ie Ss ire es 100.03 100.20 Metallic iron in (A), 55.49 pr. ct. FS (TBH) es ee) These superticial deposits have probably had their origin in the deposition of the material composing them from the waters of thermal springs, which have come to the surface through erevices in the serpentine ; the iron in the solutions was proba- bly in the form of the carbonate, which on reaching the surface became oxidized by contact with the atmosphere, and was thrown out of solution and deposited as the hydrated sesqui- oxide, as we now find it. Magnetic iron sand occurs with the Limonite in one of the deposits on Todt Hill; this was proba- bly washed in mechanically while the hydrated oxide was being deposited from solution. _ The deposits vary from a few inches up to twelve feet, or even more, in thickness ; their lateral extent is limited to a few hun- dred feet in any direction. The Todt Hill mines are the only ones wholly uncovered by glacial drift, being east of the mo-. raine. _ Aolian or Blown Sand.—Extensive deposits of light-colored sand, similar in character to those found so abundantly on Ber- gen Neck, N. J., occur along the edges of the salt meadows on the western side of the Island, from Mariners’ Harbor to near Chelsea Landing, sometimes extending to a distance of one-half 178 Geology of Richmond County, N. ¥. or three-quarters of a mile on the upland, and thus occupying a position between the trap-dyke and the salt meadows. The material is a fine, yellowish, loamy sand, containing no gravel or pebbles, but rests on the glacial drift, and is hence of post- glacial age. This sand was once the western beach of the ex- tensive body of salt water which formerly occupied the basin now filled with the salt-marsh deposits, and which extended over all the Newark and Hackensack Meadows, but has now been reduced to the area of Newark Bay. ‘The sands of this old beach were blown inland, and formed into dunes by the gene- rally prevailing westerly winds; on a windy day the manner of the formation of these dunes may still be plainly seen. A number of pine-barren plants have found lodging in this sandy soil, on both Staten Island and Bergen Neck, and it is probable that others will be found there on further exploration. MoperRN Epocu. Under this heading are included deposits whose formation began at a comparatively recent period, and whose growth still continues. Marine Alluvium or Salt Meadows.—'These deposits extend over an area of about nine and one-half square miles on Staten Island. The material composing them consists for the most part of partially decomposed vegetable matter, mixed with a little clay and sand. These salt-meadow areas have formerly been shallow bays, which have gradually been filled up, first by the deposit. of silt from their waters and the growth of marine plants, and ultimately by the growth and decay of grasses and rushes. This latter process is yet in operation, and thus the salt mea- dows keep at about the level of the highest tides; their most abundant grass is the Spartina juncea, Willd., while the rush is Juncus Gerardi, Lam., commonly known as ‘‘black grass.” A number of other plants contribute small amounts to the vegetable growth, making the salt-meadow flora quite a varied one. The most extensive areas covered by these deposits are along New Creek and the Great Kills, on the eastern shore, and from Ase Geology of Richmond County, No Y. 179 Rossville northward along Arthur Kill. The thickness of the marshes is exceedingly variable, probably as much as thirty feet in some places, and but a few inches in others. The dried material consists of decaying fibres, mixed with a little clay, ‘sand, and oxide of iron; the latter substance produces the iri- descent film commonly seen in the marshes, and popularly sup- posed to be oil. ; Sand Beaches and Points. —Sand beaches occur along all the shores that are directly exposed to the waves; the greatest ac- cumulation of sand is on the shore of the Lower Bay from Clifton southward to the so-called Point of the Beach, near Gifford’s, at Seguine’s Point, near Prince’s Bay, and at Ward’s Point, 'Tottenville. The point near Gifford’s is slowly length- ening and curving in toward the shore; a similar point is in process of formation at the mouth of New Creek ; and the ac- cumulation of sand at Ward’s Point is quite great. These poimts are produced by the combined action of the currents of the Lower Bay and the streams flowing into it, which carry the sand along the coast until finally it is driven up on the beaches by the waves. Sands composed of magnetic iron ore occur with the quartz sand, and are generally found in layers of a fraction of an inch in thickness; but an accumulation of this material to a depth of four inches has recently been found at low water on the beach near the Elm Tree Lighthouse, and has excited some attention as a possible iron ore, but it contains titanium, and is not likely to have any economic importance. All the sands have originally resulted from the disintegration of rocks, and have been carried by water down the rivers emptying into the bays, and also resulted in part from the direct disintegration of the coasts. Peat Swamps.—True peat occurs in but few places on Staten Island. Some is found in the Clove Lake Swamps, in several swamps near Richmond and Gifford’s, and towards Tottenville. In one locality near Richmond, the peat deposit is at least ten feet thick. ‘The salt-marsh deposits may be regarded as a kind of peat, but their vegetable matter comes principally from 180 (reology of Richmond County, N. ¥. grasses and rushes, while true peat results from the growth and decomposition of mosses. — Encroachment of the Lower Bay.—Vhe entire southeastern shore of Staten Island is gradually being washed away, and hence receding to the westward. In some places the loss is very apparent. At the foot of New Dorp Lane, near where the Elm Tree Lighthouse is now situated, a large American elm was standing not longer ago than the year 1840. The place where — this tree grew is now beyond the end of a dock which extends some four hundred feet from the shore. ‘This indicates a loss of four hundred feet in forty years, or an average of ten feet per year. At Cedar Grove, half a mile south of this point, there has been a loss of about three hundred and thirty feet since 1850, or about the same average. At Prince’s Bay, the Govern- ment has been obliged to build a heavy sea-wall in front of the bluff on which the lighthouse is placed,—and a like precaution has been taken at the forts on the Narrows. Now there are two causes operating to effect these results ; they are (1) the constant abrading action of the waves and cur- rents, and (2) the gradual depression of the coasts. From the course of the currents in the Lower Bay, the eroded material, ~ together with part of that brought down by the rivers, is carried southwardly along this coast, the sands deposited as. beaches, bars and points, while the finer muddy part is carried farther, and finally deposited in the deeper waters of the Bay or in the — ocean. It has been the custom to save property from this very serious loss by building bulkheads filled with stone, some hundreds of feet outward from the shore at the southern end of the land to be protected. ‘hese bulkheads att to break the force of the sand-bearing current flowing along the shore; and this check to to the motion of the water, causes it to deposit its burden on the north side of the dock. The waves soon drive the sand up on shore, and land is actually made in this manner. It is probably the cheapest and most effective way of protecting property on this coast. . The second cause which is in operation, and which, although very much slower, is perhaps surer to submerge much valuable Geology of Richmond County. No ¥. 181 land, is the gradual sinking of the coast. Prof. George H. Cook has estimated the depression of the shores of New Jersey and Long Island at about two feet per century; others have thought it somewhat less, but all are agreed that there is a subsidence going on. It will be seen that if our coast settles down to ten feet below its present level; the greater part of the plains extend- ing south of the moraine from Giffords to Clifton, now the most valuable farming land in the county, will be covered with salt meadows within a few hundred years, provided that they are not all washed away before by the action of the currents. For a full discussion of this subject sec Geology of New Jersey. 1868, pp. 343-374. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. (1) Zron Ore.—The Limonite ore of Todt Hill, Four Corners, and other places, has been used in blast furnaces in connection with other more refractory ores, or has been screened, ground and washed, to produce red ochre paint. The total amount hitherto mined may be as great as 250,000 tons, and the present production is about 20,000 tons per year. (2) Fire Clay.—The character of the deposits of this substance has already been described. Messrs. Kreischer and Sons have a large factory at Kreischerville, and produce refractory ware val- ued at over $50,000 annually. Their supply of clay is partially drawn from Woodbridge, N. J. (3) Brick Clay.—Clays of glacial drift origin are used in the manufacture vf common brick near Richmond and Linoleumville. The number of bricks annually produced has not been definite- _ly ascertained, but it probably amounts to several millions. (4) Trap Rock.—Quarries of this rock have been worked at Graniteville and near Port Richmond for many years. The rock is either cut into blocks and shipped to New York to be used for street pavements, or crushed into small pieces and employed in MacAdam or Telford pavements on Staten Island. Some edifices have been constructed of this rock, but it is not well suited for building purposes. + 182 Geology of Richmond County, N. ¥. (5) Serpentine Rock.—The compact variety has not yet been used for any economic purpose; it is too soft and weak to be used for building; it might be employed in the manufacture of mag- nesian salts, or for some purposes where refractory materials are required. The fibrous serpentine, erroneously called asbestos, has been mined near Tompkinsville Landing to the extent of 25 or 30 tons, and used for the purposes for which asbestos is employed. (6) Beach Sands.—Thousands of tons of this material are annu- ally taken from the southeastern coast, and used in New York and Brookiyn for building. In some places so much sand has been removed that property along the shore has been seriously damaged, by exposing roads and meadows to the action of the waves. (7) Peat has never been used as a fuel to any extent on Staten Island, and has little economic value. (8) Gravel occurs extensively along the beaches, and at the local- ity already noted on Todt Hill. Itis valuable as a road-making material, where only light traffic is employed. ARCH OLOGY. Implements used by the aborigines have been found abundant- ly on the sands of the Cretaceous near Tottenville, in association with scattered oyster-shells. These Indians are supposed to have belonged to the Delaware nation ; they visited the sea-coast at certain seasons, and oysters appear to have been a prominent article of food with them. ‘These shell-heaps are found much more extensively on the sand-hills between South Amboy and Keyport, New Jersey, and hence most of the Indians are sup- posed to have remained there, while a few crossed to Staten. Jsland. The stone implements have also been found at other places in the county, but nowhere so abundantly as at Totten- ville. Mr. W. S. Page, of that place, has a collection of 4 stone hammers, 2 pestles, 5 spear-heads, 15 arrow-heads and 12 flint chips,—nearly all picked up in his garden. Others have found similar implements in the same neighborhood. Mr. Arthur Hollick, of Port Richmond, has two stone hammers, three spear- heads, and seven arrow-heads, found in various parts of the county. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV: See ge Each figure (except 1b) is represented the natural size of a medium specimen. Fie. Fig. Fig. Fie. Fig. Figs. Figs. FIGS. 1.—Spirifer levis, Hall. 1. Ventral valve, viewed perpendicularly to the plane of the margins. «a. A patch of surface-markings. 1b. A portion of the margin of a large specimen, showing the rudimentary plications, extending only a short distance from the margin. 2.—Sp. levis, H. a. Hinge-area, deltidium, and beak, of the ventral valve. 0b. Dorsal valve, detached and lowered so as to expose the area of the ventral valve above its cardinal margin. 3.—Sp. fimbratus, Conrad. Ventral valve, viewed perpendicularly to the plane of the margins. The dotted line on the left represents the outline of the extreme of a common direction of variation. 4,—Sp. fimbriatus, C. «a. Beak and area of ventral valve, detached and the beak tilted toward the observer, giving direct view of the area. b. Perpendicular view of dorsal valve. 5.—Sp. levis, H. Side view. In general effect this is a restoration, made upon examination of a great number of distorted and imperfect specimens. s. 6 and 7.—Sp. fimbriatus, C. Cardinal and side views. .8,9and 10. Sp. crispus, Hisinger. Ventral, dorsal and side views of a medium specimen. This is a reproduction of Hall’s original figures, 3b and 8c of Pl. 54, Vol. 2, Pal. of N. Y. The hinge-area is, however, more produced than appears in speeimens examined by the author. 4a, on Fig. 9, isa small patch, slightly enlarged, of the surface-markings ¢ 11a and 11b.—Variety of Sp. crispus, showing the shortening of hinge- line and area, greater elevation of beak, and lessening of plications. 12a and b.—Sp. bicostatus, Vanuxem.—A copy of Hall’s Fig. 4, Pl. 54, 1. c., regarded as the extreme variety of the crispus type in the direction in which Fig. 11 is intermediate ; the plications are obso- lete, the area and beak high, the inequality in the relative convexity of the valves extreme. 13a and b.—Sp. crispus, His. Extreme variety in the opposite direc- tion, toward Sp. sulcatus, in which are conspicuous the extended hinge-line, small and low beak, low but still short area, distinct and more numerous plications. Annals, Vot. II. PrATE, XV. eid wi? EXPLANATION KK AKARK A [in AWA AN > Robbin’s 2A I I INES Reef Archean Serpentine. Constable SOETETESETITEE' al Point v¥ vy VV My) EVEYEVAN VEN ) Archean Gneiss. oO Shooter's sland ty. WAX : Richmond SSS =~ Kx Triassic Sandstone, x, PES [ROE x RE xt Trap Rock. eu Recex Kons Af / Vy Yy 4 Aff 7 Marine Alluvium. S COVERING OTHER STRATA ~~ vy és A Creat a VEN oodbridgi Kills [77 Z, “LD f ~Foint of the Beach Zh tz ; > 7 A= YY LOWER. Bae i Uj YS £2. a Perth fa SeBuine’s Point a Y Amboy ‘Pp Yj Ly “Y vince’s Bay Of. - ‘Yy A GEOLOGICAL MAP ?,. “Ward's Point OF Ze, - south RARL EAH RICHMOND CO. N. Ys. Amboy BA BY N. L. BRITTON. Scale, I : 120000 RUSSELL & STAUTNENS,ENG’S, N.YOnK ANNALS, VoL, II. Phare XV. ANNALS, Vou. II. . PLATE OVE saunq purg TEM tnycy |S ; “Modyjoqeztsy il WN feg saddp 4 Sey DOYS MoN< S be >>/\2 = >>\.2 = ? >| = a els R >>|= ie Ean = Serle Se Rea = is = 2>)/5 x Avg aoddg, JUIOg apqrysuog |} Te Ue TTT puouryony 410g. | Triassic Sandston e aTasutadg STIL US0-1 |; Vv V, V. Vv Vv Vv NVGNEICS V Vv, PT [TASsoyp fi: vy RCHEA vv cL fa fume \ ‘| rill Avg wry x“ S S} = Sef 5c 5 out 3 pa : ) lara IS loa] o = - 2) R 05/2 = se ~ ~ = s 2 00 Go] i all = [fy 2 ofS Hs PS X52] = get 3 2 «<= 2 onl = = = Ss ea?) ie) ~ ~ tc) & Poe) » (erent) S} = fs x =< © CH 7 J puowtpny STATEN. ISLAND. 2) CTIONS 43eROS = FB a S OLOGICAL le G RUSSELL & STRUTHEHS, ENG’S, N. YORK, BY N) Laie T ON: ZEN ONG Aatlg S OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOLUME 2, 1f880—s2. ———__ +e —__—_ The ‘‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of Natural History, are continued under the above name by the NEw YorK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, beginning with the year 1877. It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number to consist of not less than thirty-two pages (octavo’, with or without plates. Price of Yearly Subscription, Two Dollars, payable in advance. The Academy has for sale a number of back volumes of the Annals of the Lyceum, each containing twelve or more numbers ; the price per volume is $4.00 with uncolored plates, or $5.00 with colored plates. The Academy has established a Publication Fund, contributors to which, in the sum of $100 at one time, are entitled to all the Scientific Publications of the Academy appearing subsequently to the payment of their contri- hutions. Communications should be addressed to Pror. D. 8. MARTIN, Chairman of Publication Committee, 236 West Fourth St. Or to JOHN H. HINTON, M. D., Treasurer, 41 West Thirty-second St. [> Any person residing within the United States, on sending the amount of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive the numbers as they appear, without further cost. Agents in London, TRUBNER & Oo. CONTENTS. IX.—On Helix aspersa in California, and the Geographical Distribu- tion of certain West American Land Snails, and previous errors relating thereto, &c. By Rosperr EB. C. STHARNS, .--------- 129 X.—The Life-History of Spirifer levis, Hall :—a Paleontological study. By HENRY.S. WILLIAMS (with plate XIV), ...2222222 140 XI.—On the Geology of Richmond County, N. Y. By N. L. Brrr- TON (with plates XV and WW, ..- =. 2-22 ee ee 161 | Pages 183-192, belonging to No. 6, will be issued with the next number. | March, 1882. Nos. Tand § : ANNALS OF THE A NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. New ¥ork: PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 1881. Gregory Bros., Printers, 34 CARMINE Street, N. Y. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. [SSI. President. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. Vice-Presidents. T.. EGLESTON. BENJ. N. MARTIN. Gonyesponding Secretany. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secyetany. OLIVER P. HUBBARD, Greasurer JOHN H. HINTON. Sibrarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. G@ommittee of Publication. DANIEL 8. MARTIN. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY. GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LHEDS. WP TROW SERED GE: Geology of Northeastern West Lndia Islands. 185 XII.— Outline of the Geology of the Northeastern West India Islands. IBN 125 WRG | CIGISAY 18. Or tur UNiIversity or UpsaLa, SWEDEN; CoRRESPONDING MEMBER, N. Y. A. 5S. Read November 7th, 1881. In the winter of 1868-69 I made a geological survey of tho northeastern corner of the West Indian Archipelago. he re- sults obtained were published in the Transactions of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences of Stockholm (T. IX, No. 12, 1871), with some geological maps of the islands surveyed. Considering that the many details, which are gathered in this paper, may prevent the reader from getting a clear idea of the geology of this interesting part of the globe, and that the paper may not be easily accessible to American readers, I have acceded to the wishes of my respected friend, Mr. Thomas Bland, and written a short outline of the most important facts found by myself, and compared them with observations made by other geologists in other parts of the West Indies. The geological ages in which the material forming the islands was deposited, or protruded from the interior, are the Cretaceous, the Hocene, the Miocene, Pliocene and Post-pliocene. THE CRETACEOUS FORMATION forms the whole of the archi- pelago of the Virgin Islands except Anegada, which may be re- ferred, as also the Bahamas, to the Post-pliocene time. Also the island of Vieque, near Porto Rico, seems to consist for the most part of eruptive Cretaceous rocks. Still, there seem to be also in this island younger strata; but I cannot say anything with confi- dence about this, having paid only a short visit on this island. A map of the Virgin Group shows a series of larger islands and smaller keys, extending generally east and west. ‘The larger _are Culebra, St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola and Virgin Gorda. Their general direction coincides with the strike of the strata, wherever such is visible. South of these, but at some dis- 186 (eoloyy of Northeastern West India Islands. tance, is the island of St. Croix, also with an east and west di- rection. The rocks composing the Virgin Island range are of very dif- ferent kinds, massive eruptives, without stratification, enormous masses of clastic volcanic rocks of most variable kinds, regularly stratified metamorphic slates, siliceous limestones, metamorphic limestone, ete., very often penetrated by black trappean dikes, in the most astonishing manner resembling the trap-rocks which abound in the old rocks of Scandinavia. The VoLcanic Rocks are principally the following: 1. Diorite, closely resembling syenite, is of great extent in the island of Vieque; it occurs in a small key (Buck’s Island) south of St. Thomas, and farther in the southern peninsula of Virgin Gorda, whence it may be traced in smaller patches around the shores of Sir Francis Drake’s Channel to the north- ern point of St. John. This massive, granite-like rock consists of hornblende and soda-lime feldspar, with very little mica. I could not find quartz in it. It is easily altered, and shows then its interior globular or concretionary structure. The small island south of Virgin Gorda, called Broken Jerusalem, consists entirely of large boulders of hard diorite, left after the softer mass between has been carried away by decomposition, and is a’ beautiful illustration of the globular structure of the rock. On the small keys south of Drake’s Channel, the massive structure graduates into one more or less stratified, so that i some places distinct remains of strata are visible. In other places the main mass sends forth branching veins into the surrounding rocks, proving that it once was in a molten state. The facility with which the rocks disintegrate and decompose, makes it very probable that a mass of the diorite once filled the whole space now occupied by Sir Francis Drake’s Channel, but has been carried away by alteration or denudation. 2. Felsite.—This rock, which also could be classed as eurite, or in some spots as quartz-porphyry, forms the southern part of St. Thomas, St. John, and Peter’s Island. It is visible also on the northern part of Virgin Gorda. The color is generally hight, whitish, reddish, sometimes by alteration blood-red. It is (reology of Northeastern West India Islands. 187 a compact mixture of quartz and feldspar. In some places the quartz is separated in the form of double pyramids. The rock is evidently, in most places, a clastic rock, a kind of tufa; in others, it seems to have been protruded in a molten state as a Java. In the latter case, it has sometimes a fine columnar struc- ture, as at Red Point on St. Thomas. 3. Blue-beach.—Vhis rock, so called by the inhabitants, is a pecuhar kind of breccia of fragments of felsitic or trappean rocks, evidently a clastic voleanic rock. The color is generally very dark green, from a considerable quantity of hornblende, often altered to chlorite. In this rock, distinct traces of strati- fication are often visible. The dip of the beds is generally very steep, almost vertical. This rock constitutes the greater part of St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola, and Jost Van Dyck. 4, Diabase.—Occurs in dikes penetrating the diorite and the blue-beach. Sometimes it occurs in greater masses, as in the island of Hans Lollick, north of St. Thomas. The island of Culebra consists of a kind of diabase, or, more correctly, of Labrador porphyry. All these igneous beds are of enormous thickness, and point to a long period of very powerful volcanic activity. They are of two different types, just as in modern volcanoes ; more basic, black rocks,—traps, diorite and their tufas (or blue-beach), and more acidic,—white or hight colored, the felsites with their tu- fas. The latter seem, also, older than the former. The STRATIFIED, GENERALLY METAMORPHIC Rocks, have com- paratively small extent; many of them have doubtless been vol- canic ashes, in a state of fine division, deposited on the bottom of the sea. They consist of— 1. Clay-slate.—A black slaty rock, without fossils, closely re- sembling the slates of the Silurian formation. It occurs in the northern part of St. Thomas, near Coki Point, and on south- western Tortola, near Cox Head. The strata are almost verti- cal, and run from west to east. 2. Metamorphic slates.—Mica schist, hornblende schist, etc., occur on the small keys south of Francis Drake’s Channel, and on the islets between Tortola and St. Thomas. 188 Geology of Northeastern West India Islunds. 3. Limestone.—Hard, crystalline, bluish-gray marble, occurs on Congo Key and on Great Patch Island, near St. John ; also on Mary’s Point, on the latter island, and in some other places. Sometimes the lime is so strongly impregnated with silica that it forms a peculiar, still stratified rock,—stliceous limestone,— which is filled with garnet, epidote and other silicates. Near Coki Point of St. Thomas, the limestone stratum thins out in small rounded Hime boulders, which occur imbedded in the blue-beach rock. These rolled pieces contain fossils, sometimes silicified and well preserved, which allowed me to make out with certainty the geological age of the Virgin Islands. ; The Island of St. Croiz consists in its northern part of clay- slates, blue-beach, felsitic rocks, and some limestone, all of the same character as in the Virgin Islands, dipping at very high angles, often almost vertical, and running, though with many deviations, from west to east. South of this rocky part of the island, extends a wide level area of coral limestone and marls, probably of Miocene or perhaps more recent date. Fossils of the Cretaceous Formation.—The fossils collected near Coki Point, on St. Thomas, were abundant fragments of a large Nerinea, Acteonella, Pectunculus, Astarte, Corbula, In- mopsis, Opis, and one Ammonite. All these fossils prove the age to be Cretaceous, and probably corresponding to the Gosau formation in the Alps. The Cretaceous formation of the Virgin Islands and St. Croix consists, then, chiefly of volcanic rocks, often stratified and associated with large eruptive masses of a light colored diorite, closely resembling syenite. Their strike is *generally east to west, and their dip very strong, which proves that they have been elevated and bent by a great pressure, acting from north or south at a right angle to the strike of the strata. On study- Ing in detail the part between Tortola, St. John and St. Thomas, I found that there is a synclinal fault just in the continuation of Sir Francis Drake’s Channel. Tortola and St. John, with its continuation, St. Thomas, are only parts of the same large set — of strata, as will be clear by the accompanying schematic section (Plate XVII). Geology of Northeastern West India Islands. 189 There is little doubt that St. Croix, also, is the continuation of the same beds, although the depth between the Virgin Islands and St. Thomas is enormous, about 4,000 meters. The Virgin Islands and St. Croix are then to be regarded as the lofty sum- mits of a submarine Alpine parallel chain. The time at which this chain began to be formed, or when the pressure from north or south commenced to work, is certainly after the period when the Turonian strata were deposited, probably in the time of the white chalk; and there is evidence that the forces were still acting after the Kocene time, as will be seen further on. In the Miocene time the chain was finished, and ready for the de- posit of the almost horizontal and little-disturbed Miocene lime- stones. . The island of Porto Rico consists largely of very thick, almost undisturbed limestone beds of Miocene age; but in the interior of the country, around Utuado, rocks similar to the Cretaceous of the Virgin Islands, are met with. The same geological struc- ture will be found in Jamaica, near Bath, and in the Clarendon District, as Mr. Barrett has stated. In San Domingo, too, the Cretaceous beds, with associated syenite-like eruptive rocks, are of great extent.* In Cuba, also, they seem to be present. Everywhere the strata are strongly tilted, disturbed, raised, and highly metamorphosed. The large West Indian islands contain, then, ridges of raised Cretaceous rocks, and the Virgin Islands form their eastern out- crops. South of the Virgin Islands, they are not met with, ex- cept in Trinidad, where they form the ‘‘older Parian” forma- tion of Mr. Wall. It may be regarded as uncertain whether the strata of Scotland, in the Island of Barbadoes, belong to the Cretaceous or Eocene formation. HocEnE ForMAtiIon.—East of the Virgin Group are the two islands of St. Martin and St. Bartholomew, which belong to the Hocene time. St. Bartholomew consists of a thick set of clastic * See Gabb, on the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo. Trans- actions of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, XV, Part I, 1873. 190 Geology of Northeastern West India Islands. volcanic rocks, tufas of different kinds, interstratified with beds — of a hard, compact limestone. There are also some massive rocks, certainly eruptive, consisting of a kind of syenite-por- phyry, in the southern part of the island. St. Martin, also, consists mainly of stratified rocks, but not of limestone, as far as I know. The stratification runs generally, both m St. Martin and St. Bartholomew, from west to east, and the dip is to the south about 20°—30°. As most of the rocks are of volcanic origin, we may conclude that the igneous activity continued during the Hocene time. On the western corner of St. Martin, the Eocene strata are unconformably overlaid by hard white limestone, evidently a fragment of the Miocene formation, which forms the whole of Anguilla, and there rests upon some amygdaloid volcanic rock. The Eocene rocks seem to occur in the southwestern part of Antigua,* where they have a northerly dip ; also, in Guadeloupe, Grande-Terre, they seem to occur (Pierre & Ravets de Duchas- saing). In Jamaica, Eocene beds of 1,000 meters in thickness occur, and consist, according to Mr. Barrett, of porphyritic conglomerates, with shaly and sandy beds. Mr. Gabb does not mention the occurrence of Eocene beds in San Domingo. They will probably be found there, however, and have perhaps been considered as parts of the Cretaceous or of the lower Miocene formations. Fossils.—The limestone of St. Bartholomew is rich in fossils, but generally in a bad state of preservation. Also in Trinidad Eocene fossils have been found. The age of St. Bartholomew is, beyond any doubt, that of the Calcaire Grossier of Paris. There occur a large Cerithiwm, identical with or nearly allied to C. giganteum, a large Nerita allied to NV. conoidea, and several species of Voluta, Rostellaria, Phorus, Cyprea, Natica, ete. My collections of fossil mollusks were sent ten years ago to Prof. Carl Mayer, of Ziirich, for determination ; but he has not yet * See Nugent, Descr. of Antigua; Trans. London Geol. Soc., ist Ser., Vol. V, p. 459, 1841. Howey, Geology of Antigua, Am. J. Sci., XXXYV, p. 75, 1839. Duncan, Quart. J. G. §., XIX, p. 408, 1863. Geology of Northeastern West India Islands. 191 finished the examination. Very abundant is the Zerebratula carneoides, Guppy, also occurring in Trinidad. Another species of brachiopod, Argiope Clevei, Davidson, was also found on St. Bartholomew. The corals are numerous, and have been de- scribed by Mr. P. M. Duncan (Quart. Jour. G. Soc., XXIX, pp. 518—565). The echinoderms have been described by M. Cot- teau (Description des échinides tertiaires des Isles St. Barthelémy et Anguilla) in K. Sy. Vetenskaps Akademien Handlinger, TT. XIII, No. 6, 1875. The foraminifera are very numerous, but have not been examined. Fragments of crabs, Ranina, oc- cur also in St. Bartholomew. _ As the Hocene strata are incline, and their strike is generally east and west, there is evidence that the force which pushed the Cretaceous strata into such gigantic folds, was still active after the Eocene time, but not with such great intensity;as before, because the Eocene strata are not more inclined than 20°—30°, while the Cretaceous in many places are almost vertical. These facts indicate that the rising of the mountain chains in the great Antilles took place in the epoch between the Turonian time and the Miocene. M10cENE FormMAtTiIon.—Among the small islands of the north- eastern part of the West Indies, the Miocene formation occurs in Anguilla, where it has been deposited on a kind of volcanic amygdaloid rock, visible on the northern: coast. It consists of limestone and marls (sometimes very rich in fossils, which gene- rally are in the form of casts), covered by a hard limestone bed, which slowly dips down to the south. ‘The same limestone bed occurs in the western point of St. Martin, directly and uncon- formably deposited on the Kocene formation. Miocene beds have also been found in Antigua, Barbadoes and Trinidad. Grande-Terre of Guadeloupe seems to consist principally of Miocene strata. The level land of St. Croix is probably Miocene, but complete evidence of this is still wanting. In the large West India islands, Jamaica, Porto Rico, San Domingo and Cuba, the Miocene formation has an enormous development. It consists largely of limestones, generally almost horizontal or very little inclined,—evidence enough that the mountain-chains were completed before the Miocene epoch, 192 Geology of Northeastern West India Islands. that they were largely submerged in the Miocene time, and that after this period a continental uplift occurred in the West Indies. PLIOCENE AND Post-pLIOCENE Formations.—The hne of separation between the Miocene and Phocene formations in the West Indies is nowhere decided. It is possible that the hard, yellowish-white limestone, which contains only few fossils and covers the true Miocene beds, may be more accurately called . Pliocene, and not Miocene, as I have done in the foregoing. On the other hand, it is by no means easy to draw a line of de- marcation between the Pliocene and Post-phocene time. J am inclined to think that the island of Sombrero is of Plioceno origin, also Barbuda and some part of Barbadoes. To the Post-plhocene time are to be referred the very import- ant volcanic formations which extend from Saba through St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, Nevis, Redonda, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, etc. In St. Kitts I found, near Brimstone Hill, a white lime- stone formation, containing a large number of fossils, generally impressions and casts. All the specimens, belonging to about forty-three different species, could be identified with living Ca- ribbean species, except only a»single specimen of Modiolaria. It is not improbable that the elevation of the Miocene strata was accompanied by a subsidence in the Caribbean sea, and that on the limit between the area of elevation and that of subsidence, large fissures originated, pouring out the tufas and other ig- neous products, of which the volcanic islands are formed. To the Post-pliocene time may also be referred a limestone formation of great extent, forming the island of Anegada, and the Bahamas. Anegada is a flat, very low island of limestone, containing great numbers of fossil shells belonging to species still. living in the Caribbean sea. Anegada is nearly allied, in its geological structure, to the Bahamas, and proves that in this part of the Caribbean area an elevation and not a subsidence is going on. : DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVII. “FIGURE 1. Section from St. John to Jost Van Dyck (Virgin Islands). il, 2, fst, dolan, F 2 Sta lhomags i 13; Great Fhatch Island. 4, Jost Van Dyck. 5, Tortola. g 6, Tobago. i Teuana (‘‘Guana’’) Island. a, Coki Point, St. Thomas. b, Mary’s Point, St. John. : By Felsite. - 1B), “Blue-beach.” M, Metamorphic rocks. ik, Limestone, D, Diorite. The dotted lines indicate islands not on the precise line of section. FIGURE 2. Sections from St. Croix to Tortola, and from Nevis and Antigua to ng i I, Antigua. 10 Nevis. ne Be ke Le ulecae volcanoes. V, Saba, Wily tsi Cinoils<, VII, St. Bartholomew. k VII, St. Martin. oer IX, Anguilla. ag X, St. John. eee XI, Tortola. . iS ; XII, Anegada. 4 . % P : woe oa yi = = ’ a Z : = 7 ~ “ a : ‘ ae 4 * = — 3 © Ke 2 a he : > i oo : ¥ a bes oar “ ts “tes cye be a : : - ‘. 4 WO < a 7 Hs 7 ay é iN ay, ANNALS, VoL. IJ. Drawn by P. T. Cleve, S. th rey mi oF ( cf ii EEA Pee vl Vel “S Paes py Shee Fig. 1. Section through the Virgin Islands, from St. John to Jost Van Dyck. Fig. 2. Sections through the Leeward Islands, from St. Croix to Tortola, and from Nevis and Antigua to Anguilla. PLATE XVII. Eng. by B. B. Chamberlin. eg Ye at. Aiea New Species of Fossils from Oho. 193 NXIU.—Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from Ohio, with Remarks on some of the Geological Formations in which they gccur.* IG MG LEG \AVSHCIM AED ILD) Read January 16th, 1882. Species from the Hydraulic Limestones of the Lower Helder- berg Group. BRACHIOPODA. Streptorhynechus hydraulicum, n. sp. Pal. Ohio, Vol. III, Plate 1, Figs. 1—3. Shell small to minute, the largest individuals yet observed not exceeding five-eighths of an inch in greatest diameter, while the most of those ob- served are not more than two-thirds as great. Valves depressed convex, or, more commonly, appearing very flat, as seen on the surface of the stone. Hinge-line straight, nearly as long as the width of the shell below, and the latter usually more than the length, frequently nearly once and a half as great. Ventral valve characterized by a very narrow and nearly vertical cardinal area, and a usually more or less twisted or otherwise distorted beak. Dorsal valve slightly more convex than the ventral, with a percepti- ble mesial depression extending from beak to base, becoming broad and undefined below the middle of the length. Surface of the shell marked by coarse and somewhat ridged radiating striz, which are distinctly alternating in size ; the principal ones proportionally very strong. : q The small size of the shell, with the strong radiating and alternate striz, are distinguishing features of the species. ‘There is no species resembling it, to any degree, among the fossils of New York rocks of a corresponding age. It presents much more the features of forms of the genus from the Coal measures than any heretofore described from Silurian rocks of America, and will not be readily confounded with any known species. Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic beds of the Lower Helderberg group, at Belleville, Sandusky County, and at Green- * These descriptions will be reprinted in the forthcoming Volume of the Palieoutology of Ohio, and will be accompanied by Illustrations, to which the references by Plate and Figure, given in the present article, under each species, relate. 104 New Species of Fossils from Ohto. field, Ohio; associated with Meristella bellu, Nucleospira rotun- data and Leperditia alta, occurring sometimes in great numbers, almost covering the surfaces of slabs. Nucleospira rotundata, nu. sp. Pal. O., UL, Plate I, Figs. 11—14. Shell attaining a rather large size for the genus, being often more than half an inch im transverse diameter, and when of medium or large size, strongly ventricose or rotund. The younger individuals, however, are de- pressed-convex or lenticular in profile. Length of the shell as great or greater than the transverse diameter. Beaks small and incurved, not at all conspicuous. Valves marked by a slight depression along the median line, - strongest on the ventral side. This species, like all those of this formation yet obtained in Ohio, are mostly internal casts and impressions ; consequently the true features of the shell are not readily obtained. ‘The general features of the species, however, are preserved suffi- ciently for identification and comparison, when good individuals are selected. The shell bears much resemblance to VV. ventricosa, Con., from the Lower Helderberg group of New York, in its general form, except the much greater size and more elongated form of the adult individuals. ‘here is more difficulty in sepa- rating them satisfactorily from the casts of Meristella bella, Hall, with which they are associated. In fact, it is all but im- possible to do this with certainty, unless they are in a good state of preservation, as the difference in the form of the muscular imprint of the ventral valve, and the more strongly imeurved beaks, are the only features that can be relied upon. Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic limestone of the Lower He'derberg group, at Greenfield, Ohio. Rhynchonella hydraulica, n. sp. Pal OF pb late hic 17. Shell rather smaller than medium size, transversely oval in outline and ventricose in profile ; the dorsal valve being highly convex, and the ventral somewhat depressed convex. Beaks small, not prominent or conspicuous ; that of the ventral valve moderately incurved, and the other rather strongly incurved. Surface of the shell marked by from sixteen to eighteen simple plications, four of which are strongly elevated on the front half of the dorsal valve to form the mesial clevation, which does not extend beyond the mid- ors Vew Species of Fossils from Ohio. 195 dle of the valve, and six or seven may be counted on each side of the valve. The plications are but slightly elevated, are round on the summit, and do not extend beyond the middle of the shell, the upper part of whiel is smooth, and marked only by concentric lines of growth. The interior of the dorsal valve is marked by a moderately strong mesial septum, extend- ing from the apex of the valve to about one-third of its length. The shell appears to have been also marked by fine concentric lines of growth, some of which form distinct varices. This species belongs to the semi-plicated group of the genus, of which there are many species having close resemblance to it, but none in rocks of corresponding age or position having very close affinities to it. Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic limestone of the Lower Helderberg group, at Greenfield, Ohio. Pentamerus pe€s-Ovis, nv. sp. Pal. O., III, Plate 1, Figs. 11—22. Shell quite small, and of a somewhat broadly triangular form, with de- pressed convex valves, the ventral side being nearly twice as deep as the dorsal, and more elongated at the beak, giving it the triangular character ; cardinal slopes straightened and rapidly diverging ; front broadly rounded,’ The species is known only in the condition of internal casts, and as thus seen, the ventral valve is deeply cleft along the median line by the removal of the central septum, the slit often extending more than three-fourths of the length of the valve. The filling of the spoon-shaped cavity is pro- portionally large, being long and narrow, and not strongly arched. Cast of the dorsal valve characterized by a proportionally large and broad cardi- nal plate, from which project two long and strongly divergent and distant crural processes, reaching far along the surface of the cast in some cases, while in others they are quite short. The surface of the valves has been destitute of plications, but is usually marked in the larger individuals by several strong varices of growth near the front margin, which give to the shell a prematurely old appearance for so small a species ; the individuals seldom exceeds five-eighths of an inch in length on the ventral side. The species is unlike any known form of a similar size, in the shallowness of the valves, in the erect character of the ventral beak, and in the deeply divided feature of the cast of this valve. The dorsal valve is much less marked, and is often destitute of any distinguishing feature. Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic hmestone of the Lower Helderberg group, in Adams County, Ohio, occurring in 196 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. numbers densely packed together, but having the shelly sub- stance entirely removed. ARTICULATA. Eurypterus Eriensis, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. Il, Plate 1, Figs. 31, 32. Among the fossils from the Hydraulic limestones of Beach Point, Put-in-Bay Island, Lake Erie, there are several detached cephalic shields and one body of a species of Hurypterus, which is so distinctly different from any of those described. that it seems necessary to class it as a separate species. ‘The differences, so far as seen on the parts preserved, consist in the form of the cephalic plate, in the size and position of the eye-tubercles, and in the proportions of the body as compared with the known forms. ‘There are undoubtedly other and more important dif- ferences in the appendages, but as these are not preserved on any of the individuals examined, comparison is impossible. The cephalic shield is proportionally broader than that of EH. remipes or H. lacustris, and is more regularly rounded or arched on the anterior border, lacking that subquadrate form characteristic of those species. The eyes are proportionally smaller, and situated nearer each other, and also farther forward, as well as being somewhat more oblique to the longitudinal axis of the body. The minute ocular points are somewhat larger than in #. remipes, are situated close together, and are nearly opposite the posterior end of the real eye tubercles; they consist of a pair of distinctly elevated rings surrounding rather deep, although minute, central depressions; the inner margins of the rings being almost in contact. The head does not show evi- dence of haying been margined by an elevated or thickened rim, as In those species, but as the specimens are rather impressions of the inner surface of the external crust than actual external surfaces (being more properly internal casts, the substance of the carapace having been entirely removed), this feature may not be properly shown. ‘The head-plate more closely resembles that of #. microphthalmus, Hall (Pal. N. Y., Vol. II, p. 407,* pl. 80 A, fig. 7), from the Tentaculite limestone near Cazenovia, N. Y., than of any other described species ; it differs, however, 6 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. LOM in being proportionally much shorter, which gives it a more semicircular form. The eye-tubercles are also more nearly of the size of those of that species and similarly situated. The thorax closely resembles that of 4. remipes in its general form, but the lower three of four segments are proportionally shorter, giving the posterior extremity a much more compact character. The principal distinction between the two species, as shown by the thorax, exists in a difference of the ornamenta- tion of the surface, as seen on the specimen used. This consists in the minute spine-like pustules or pointed granules, marking the surface of the crust, being arranged in irregular transverse lines across the body, and parallel to the anterior and posterior margins of the segments, instead of being irregularly disposed, as in all other species described. No indication of the longitu- dinal-rows of larger pustules, marking the median line of the thoracic segments, can be traced. Caudal spine not observed. Leperditia angulifera, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. II, Plate 1, Figs. 28—30. Carapace of medium size, having a length, in adult individuals, of about three-eighths of an inch, by a height of one-fourth of an inch in the broadest part. General form of the outline broadly sub-ovate and widest posteriorly ; hinge-line straight, equal in length to two-thirds that of the entire valve ; anterior end a little the shortest, narrowly rounding into the broadly curved basal line ; posterior end broadly rounded. Surface of the carapace highly elevated and prominent, forming a strong, somewhat angular, longitudinal node just within the basal margin, and near the middle of the length. From this point, the surface slopes somewhat gradually upward to the hinge-line, with a barely perceptible convexity, except on the anterior end, where it is more strongly convex, and characterized by a rather prominent and well- marked ocular tubercle. From the angular nod2 near the lower margin, there is, on well-preserved individuals, a perceptible angulation, extending along the surface to the point of greatest length on the anterior end, and a similar one, but less strongly marked, on the posterior side. There is no perceptible difference in form between the right and left valves, each show- ing the features about equally developed. No appearance of striations ra- diating from the ocular tubercle can be detected, either on the internal casts or in the matrices ; still the nature of the rock in which they are im- bedded is such that very obscure markings would scarcely be preserved. This species differs from Leperditia alta, Conrad, of the same formation, in its larger size, and in the larger and more distinct 198 Vew Species of Fossils from Ohio. ‘eye-tubercle, as well as in its shghtly different position ; but most distinctly in the sub-angular ridge-like node, and greater convexity of the lower border of the valves. This projecting node being situated near the lower margin, and also being the most prominent point of the valve, causes the rock to adhere to the more abrupt sides when fractured, and gives to the valves as they appear upon the fractured surface a very decidedly trian- gular aspect, entirely unknown in JL. alta. Formation and Locality.—\n the hydraulic limestone of the Lower Helderberg group, at Greenfield, Ohio, where it occurs in great numbers, forming distinct layers through the rock, as’ does the ZL. alta in the Tentaculite limestone of New York. Species from the Limestones of the Upper Helderberg Group. PROTOZOA. Receptaculites Devonicus, nu. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 2, Fig. 10. A yery decidedly marked and characteristic specimen of the genus Receptaculites, De France, has been obtained from the limestones of the Upper Helderberg group, by Mr. Ed. Hyatt, of the Ohio State University, from a quarry at Fishinger’s mills, about eleven miles north of Columbus, Ohio. The specimen is about two and a half inches in diameter, is broadly concaye across the disc, and slightly recurved at the outer margin. The concentric lines of pores or cells are strongly marked, and in- crease rapidly in size as they recede from the centre of the disc, but the surface has been so much weathered that the grooves left by the removal of the stolons at the foot of the cells are not distinguishable, so that the entire specific characters are not recognized ; enough, however, remains to show the general form ‘and proportions. It has much the appearance of specimens of a corresponding size of R. Owent, Hall, from the lead-bearing limestones of the West, both in its general form and in the con- cavity of the disc, as well as in the proportions and rate of in- crease of the cell-openings as seen exposed on the surface of the limestone. The occurrence of a species of this genus at this horizon, is a ; New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 199 rather unexpected feature in its history. The highest horizon * of its occurrence hitherto recorded, is in the shaly limestone of the Lower Helderberg group of New York, from which the type of the species Receptaculites infundibuliformis (Coscinium infundibuliformis, Katon; Geol. Text-book, 2d Ed., 1833, p. 132, fol. 5, figs. 64, 65) was derived. ‘The figure and descrip- tion, as given by Prof. Eaton, are both poor, but the specimen is still in the cabinet of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, bearing the original label, and I have seen several specimens of the species from the same formation. . dactyloides (Dictyo- crinus dactyloides, Conrad) is also from about the same horizon. Both of these species, however, are in the Silurian, while the present species brings the genus up to the Devonian: so that we now know of its existence from the base of the Lower Silurian to the Lower Devonian. RADIATA: Stylastrea Anna, 2. sp.* Pal. O., Vol. UII, Plate 2, Figs. 1—5. Corallum compound, growing in irregular or more or less hemispherical masses of several inches in diameter, which are formed of a large number of closely aggregated polygonal cell-tubes or polyps, of rather small size, divided by intercellular walls of considerable thickness, as in most forms of the compound Cyathophyllide. Full-grown polyps, measuring about half an inch in diameter, but usually somewhat smaller ; the prevailing size he- ing about three-eighths of an inch. Calyces deep, abruptly declining from the intercellular walls to a depth nearly equalling the transverse diameter. Longitudinal septa or rays well developed, extending about one-third, or less, of the diameter of the tube from the outer wall, and averaging about forty in number in adult individuals ; some containing thirty-six, and one large one counted gives forty-two. Crest of the rays strongly denticulate, the denticles being thickened and knot-like at their junction with the rays. Central chamber within the limits of the longitudinal rays, equal to one- third of the entire of the polyp, and divided by numerous distinct transverse tabule, which are variously bent or interrupted by contact with the adjoin- ing ones, leaving irregular cavities of considerable size between them. In- terseptal spaces occupied by a series of horizontal plates, which originate at the outer wall, and extend upward and inward with increased growth to the edge of the rays, where they form the denticulation of the crest. Be- tween the latter plates, the spaces are occupied by the smaller irregular vesicular structure. * Named in houor of Mrs. Orton, wife of President Orton, of the State University, Columbus, Ohio. 200 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. The species, in its general features, resembles Cyathophylum rugosum, Hall, sp., from this formation, and may be easily mis- taken for that one, in obscure or imperfect specinens ; but where the internal structure is observable, especially in longitudinal sections of the polyps, can be very readily distinguished by the large central space in each polyp, and by the strongly developed transverse tabule ; also by the rays not extending to the centre, as in that species and in those of the genus Acervularia. When the coral is weathered, or the substance becomes chalky, so that the polyps are readily separable from each other longitudinally, the appearance very closely resembles that of Cyathophyllum rugosum when in a similar condition, but the interruption of the rays before reaching the centre, and the great extent of the tabule, will then serve to distinguish them. Formation and Locality.—In the Upper Heldenmers sToune in Paulding County, Ohio. BRACHIOPODA. Streptorhynechus flabellum, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 2, Figs. 7 and 9. Shell below a medium size, semi-circular or semi-ovate in outline, with a straight hinge-line of variable length ; the lateral and front margins are somewhat regularly rounded and, in a profile view, irregularly bi-convex. Ventral valve depressed convex, with a more or less elevated and project- ing but twisted or distorted beak, overhanging a nearly vertical cardinal area of irregular form and width, which is divided in the middle by a nar- rowly triangular convex deltidium. The dorsal valve is almost regularly semi-circular, very depressed convex, with a slightly more prominent umbo, and is destitute of cardinal area. Surface of the valves marked by from twenty-two to twenty-four strong, rather sharply elevated, radiating pli- cations, which are entirely simple, and separated by broad, concave inter- spaces. The shell is also further marked by fine, regular, concentric. strie of growth, which arch backward in crossing the radii, and may have been sub-lamellose on the external surface, but the examples seen are all exfoliated. The species is of asomewhat unusual type, especially in Devo- nian rocks. The dorsal valve seen alone presents so much the appearance of a strongly-marked Aviculopecten, that when first observed it was thought to belong to that genus; but the ventral valve, similarly marked, and possessing the characteristically twisted cardinal area and beak with its covered fissure, at once New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 201 ; ; ; » indicates its true position. It is entirely unlike any species Intherto described from American rocks, and will not easily be nustuken. It resembles, in the features of the dorsal valve, specimens of Orthis flabellum from the shales of the Niagara group of New York and elsewhere; but it 1s more coarsely marked, with wider and more deeply concave interspaces. Formation and Locality.—In ‘the limestones of the Upper Helderberg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Ohio. Collected by Mr. Hyutt. Rhynchonella? raricosta, un. sp. Ral OF Vol ily Plater) Biss 6: Shell of moderate size, and somewhat transversely sub-triangular in out- line, when seen upon the ventral side. Ventral valve flattened and very shallow, with-a short, obtuse, and not at all incurved beak ; cardinal slopes incurved, and the margins straight from the beak to near.the point of great est width of the valve, the angle of divergence being nearly or quite 120 degrees. Front of the valve broadly curved, and marked by several deep indentations corresponding to the number of plications marking the surface. - Middle of the valve marked by a broad, shallow, slightly angular mesial sinus, which is more than one-third as wide at the front of the valve as the length from beak to base. Surface of the valve marked, on each side of the sinus, by two low, angular, but distinct plications, besides those bor- dering the sinus ; no other markings are traceable on the surface of the shell. The margin of the valve between the plications is extended, forming rounded projections similar to that of the mesial sinus, and probably cor- responding to low rounded plications which have characterized the dorsal valve, which has not been observed. The broad sub-triangular form of the shell. with the shallow ventral valve and the small number of low, angular plications, will readily distinguish this from any species hitherto known. There may possibly be some doubt as to the generic reference of the species; but this cannot be positively determined until more perfect individuals are obtained. Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the Upper Helder- berg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Ohio. Collected by the Hyatt brothers, of the State University. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Genus Mytiiarea, H. and W. Prelim. Nolice Lamellibranchiate Shells, Up. Held , Ham. and Chemung Groups, &e. State Cab. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1869. 202 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. Mytilarea percarinata, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 6, Figs. 1 and 2. Shell less than medium size, the specimen used for description and illus- tration measuring but one and three-fourths inches in extreme height ; and the distance from the anterior to the posterior margins across the point of greatest diameter, only a trifle over one inch ; the depth of the valve being nearly half an inch. Form of the shell elongate triangular-ovate, rather acutely pointed at the beak, which is small and incurved ; anterior, or bys- sal, margin straight and absolutely vertical in the example mentioned ; basal margin broadly rounded from the anterior line nearly to the point of greatest length of the valve, where it is more rapidly curved, and finally passes abruptly into the rapidly ascending posterior margin; the lower part of which is nearly parallel to the anterior side, but above inclines more rapidly toward the short and very oblique hinge-line. The surface of the valve is most elevated along the anterior umbonal ridge, where it is at right angles to the anterior surface, but slopes gently backward for two-thirds of the distance toward the posterior margin, and on the other third much more abruptly. Near the beak, the surface rounds rapidly from the an- terior ridge to the posterior border. Surface of the shell marked by nume- rous concentric ridges, parallel to the margin of the valve, many of which are strongly marked and form varices of growth. On the anterior surface, these varices and the concentric striz are well marked. Cardinal area not observed. The example used is a right valve, and bears evidence in its characters of being an adult shell. It is associated in the same layers of cherty material with Jf ponderosa, H. & W. (Prelim. Notice Lamell. Shells, ete., p. 21), but may be readily dis- tinguished by the vertical anterior surface and the angular um- bonal ridge. From the young of that species, it is readily distinguished by these characters, as those are distinctly round and ventricose. The only known species approaching this in the angularity of the ridge, 1s M/. attenuata, H. & W., of the Chemung group; but this is quite distinct in other respects. | Formation and Locality.—In the white chalky chert-beds of | the Upper Helderberg Group, near Dublin, Ohio. GASTEROPODA. Platyceras squalodens, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 3, Figs. 6 and 8. ¢ Shell small, sharply conical when viewed in a lateral direction, with the apex gently curved anteriorly; but in a posterior view, the form is narrowly New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 203 lanceolate, with the dorsal portion rising into a thin, sharp crest or ridge ; anterior side rounded and the anterior slope concave. Aperture narrowly ovate, rounded on the anterior side, widest just above the middle, and ex- tending backward into a narrow point. Surface of the shell marked by fine hair-like concentric lines of growth parallel to the margin of the aper- ture, which is a little bent down anteriorly and posteriorly, and also by a rather faintly marked, but still distinct sulcus, which passes from the apex on the left anterior slope, and over which the striz are slightly undulated, indicating a slight notch in the margin at this point. In the narrow and curved lanceolate form of the shell, this species differs very materially from any of the numerous species of this very monotonous genus, and may be readily distinguished by the sharp dorsal ridge. Formation and Locality.—ln the Upper Helderberg lime- stone, at Columbus, Ohio. Collection of Columbia College. Dentalium Martini, n. sp. Iria, Oy Wa JOUR, Ilene ah lea) Shell somewhat larger than medium size, rather rapidly expanding from the apex to the aperture for a species of this genus, and moderately curv- ing throughout the length ; cylindrico-conical in form, and circular in a transverse section. Surface marked only by encircling striae. which form rather broad undulations on the shell, and are strongly arched forward on the inner side of the curvature, showing that the lip of the shell has been somewhat extended on this side of the aperture. Shell-substance thick. The species attains a rather large size, and expands more rapidly than most species of the genus, reaching a diameter of one-fourth of an inch in a length of less than two inches. The curvature is also considerable, being deflected fully an eighth of an inch from a straight line within the length of the specimen _ when tested on the inner face. There is no species of similar char- acter from rocks of Devonian age, so far as can be ascertained. On some of the internal casts, there occurs a longitudinal ridge, as if there had been a slit or interruption of some kind at that point, which gives rise to a supposition that it may have belonged to the genus Coleoprion, Sandberger, though no positive inter- ruption of the strive of the surface is seen on any specimen ex- amined. ‘This fact may suggest its belonging to the recently formed genus Coleolus, Hall, but its perfect resemblance to Dentalium more strongly indicates its affinities as in that relation, rather than with the Pteropoda. Nor does there appear any 204 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. sufficient reason among the species referred to Coleolus by its author, for a generic separation from Dentalium, other than their more strictly straight form. But there are straight or nearly straight Dentalia, and also curved forms which he has referred to the new genus. The generic feature ‘shells thick” would also be opposed to pteropodous affinities. In its more rapid taper and greater curvature, it is sufficiently distinet from described forms of that genus. Formation and Locality.—In the cherty layers of the Upper Helderberg limestones, near Dublin, Ohio. Macrocheilus priscus, nu. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 3, Figs. 3 and 4. Shell small and very ventricose, the height but little greater than the di- ameter of the body volution ; the former in the figured example being three- eighths of an inch, and the latter only about one-sixteenth of an inch less. Shell composed of about four volutions, which are very ventricose and rapidly increase in diameter, the last one forming the great bulk of the shell, being fully two-thirds of the entire height. Suture-line distinct, but not strongly marked. Apical angle about cighty degrees. Aperture somewhat semilu- nate, strongly modified on the inner side by the body of the preceding volu- tion, which occupies fully one half its height. Columella strong, straight and rounded, and the twisted ridge obsolete. Surface of the shell appa- rently smooth ; at least no striz are perceptible. This pretty little species reminds one strongly of JW. ventri- cosus, Hall, from the Coal-measures, but is somewhat shorter in the spire, although resembling it in most other respects. The substance of the shell is soft and chalky, and might not retain minute surface strie if they had ever existed; but no remains of them are visibie at present. Formation and Locality.—In the white cherty layers of the Upper Helderberg group, near Dublin, Ohio. Loxonema parvulum, nu. sp. Pal. O.; Vol. Il, Plate 3) Hig. 3 Shell minute, scarcely exceeding a fourth of an inch in length, and pro- portionally slender, with a rapidly ascending spire, which is slightly more rapidly tapering in the upper than in the lower part. Volutions six or six and a half, moderately convex on the outer surface, and more strongly rounded on the lower part of the exposed portion than on the upper ; ra 4 4 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 205 suture-line distinct, but not margined by a flattening of the upper edge of the succeeding volution. Aperture elongate, slightly angular at the base and pointed above. Surface of the volutions marked by a large number of distinct vertical striz, which are more numerous and slightly finer on the body volution than above, and are so nearly destitute of sigmoid curvature as to appear vertical until closely examined. The small size of the shell, the nearly vertical Lnes, and the unequally expanding volutions, are distinguishing features; the latter character, howeyer, appears to vary a little in degree on some of the specimens. It will be readily distinguished from the young shells of L. Humiltonie, which occurs in the same rock, by the number of volutious and the slender form. Formation and Locality.—In the white cherty layers of the Upper Helderberg limestone, near Dublin, Ohio. CEPHALOPODA. Trematoceras, n. geu. A straight, obconical, cephalopodous shell, presenting the characteristics of an Orthoceras, so far as the appearance of the tube, septa and siphuncle is concerned ; but with the additional feature of a line of elongated, raised tubercles along one side of the shell, which have formed perforations at certain stages of growth, probably confined to the outer chamber as openings, which were closed as the animal extended the shell, and before the septa opposite them were formed. Type, 7. Ohioense. The shell for which the above generic name is proposed offers un entirely novel feature among the Orthoceratide. The line of nodes seen on the cast of the shell is entirely different from anything pertaining to the ornamentation of the shell, and pre- sents the same appearance as would the partially filled perfora- tions of a Haliotis, or like those shown on the back of species of Bucania, and those on which the genus Tremanotus was founded ; neither is it a feature at all dependent upon the position of the siphon or directly connected with it; for in the specimen used the siphon is slightly excentric, on the opposite side of the tube from the nodes. Its position would thus indicate that it was a feature pertaining to the dorsal lip of the shell, corresponding to the sinus seen in the lip of many other genera. Taking this view of it, it would appear to indicate the existence of a deep, narrow notch, with raised margins, in the lip of the shell at stated periods, beyond which the shell was again united for a 206 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. time, leaving a perforation to be closed by a deposit of shell from the mantle as it approached the lower part of the chamber of habitation. Many species of Orthoceras have been obseryed, having a raised line, or rather markings, along the dorsal side ; but none, so far as I am aware, presenting these evidences of a series of separate openings, which I consider a feature worthy of generic distinction. Trematoceras Ohioense, b. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 6, Figs. 3 and 4. Shell of medium size, straight, and somewhat rapidly tapering from below upward ; the rate of increase being equal to nearly one-sixth of the increase in length. Septa moderately concave, rather closely arranged ; five of the chambers about equalling the diameter of the uppermost of the five counted. Siphon of moderate size, and in the specimen used slightly excentric. The surface of the shell, so far as can be determined from the internal cast, has been smooth. Perforations, or nodes representing them, large and elevated, two to three times as long as wide, and occurring at every third septum below and at every second in the upper part of the specimen. Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the Upper Helder- berg group, at Smith and Price’s quarry, near Columbus, Ohio. The discovery and preservation of this peculiar specimen are due to the careful observation of Mr. Edward Hyatt, of the State University at Columbus, Ohio. Gomphoceras Hyatt, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 4, Fig. 1, and Plate 5, Fig. 1. Shell large and robust, slightly arcuate throughout, but more strongly curvea below than in the upper part ; somewhat rapidly expanding from below upward to near the middle of the outer chamber, where it is sud- denly contracted to the aperture, and on the lateral margins again slightly expanding. The rate of increase in diameter, as compared with the in- creased length, is about as one and two, when measured on the inside curva- ture. Transverse section of the shell obtusely subtriangular, flattened or but slightly convex on the inner surface, rounded on the lateral surfaces, and obtusely rounded on the back ; the dorso-ventral and lateral diameters are about as four and five, and the triangular form is more perceptible in the earlier stages of growth, owing to the greater convexity of the inner face in the upper portion and on the outer chamber. Outer chamber comparatively short, being about two thirds as high as wide. Aperture large, irregularly tri-lobed, straight on the inner face, and about four-fifths New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 20% as wide as the entire width of the shell, and apparently about two-thirds as wide in a dorso-ventral direction as laterally. The exact form of the aper- ture on the outer side cannot be ascertained, owing to the imperfection of the specimen in this part. Septa moderately concave, very closely arranged in the lower part, but more distantly disposed above ; the rate of increase in distance somewhat gradual to near the upper portion, where two or three of the septa are slightly more crowded. In the more distant portions, three chambers occupy the space of one inch, but in the lower part of the Specimen, where the transverse diameter is a little more than one and a half inches, they are less than one-twelfth of an inch apart. Siphuncle of mode- rate size and sub-centrally situated. Surface of the shell unknown. The specimen from which the description is taken is an in- ternal cast, not retaiming any portion of the shelly structure, but it appears to have been destitute of strong sturface markings. It measures about seven inches in length by nearly four mehess in transverse diameter at the widest part. which is near the’ lower part of the outer chamber. The lower end is imperfect, and measures one and a half inches in transverse diameter. It is with some hesitation that I place the species. under the genus Gomphoceras, owing to the strong curvature of the shell and the structure of the aperture. which is reversed in its relation ' to the curvature of the shell as compared with most species of the genus ; the widest portion being on the inside curvature, in- stead of on the outer side. The general triangular or trilobed form of the aperture, together with the greater lateral diameter, would seem to overbalance the fact of the curvature. Formation und Locality.—In limestone of the Upper Helder- berg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Ohio. Named in honor of Mr. E. Hyatt, from whose collection it was obtained. | Gomphoceras amphora, b. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 3, Fig. 9. Shell of large size, elongate-ovate or short sub-fusiform, somewhat rapidly expanding from below upward to within a short distance of the base of the outer chamber ; from which point it again contracts more rapidly to about one-half the height of the outer chamber, and is then drawn out into a nar- row neck, resembling the neck of a bottle, of a width but little exceeding one-third of the diameter of the larger portion of the shell. Aperture not distinctly traced, but on the side figured, there is an appearance of a deep, rather narrow sinus, extending nearly one-half the depth of the outer 208 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. chamber. The shell bears the appearance, also, of having been curved, as indicated principally by the obliquity of the septa, which are numerous, rather deeply concave, and arranged at a distance of about one-fourth of an inch in the largest part of the specimen, and decreasing in distance below and above ; while near the base of the outer chamber there are about six septa closely crowded together. Position of the siphuncle not determined. The species( resembles G. evimiuwm, Hall, of the same forma- tion, in the lower part of its length, although more rapidly ex- panding, but in the upper part, and especially near the aperture, differs entirely from any other species known. Formation and Locality.—In the limestones of tiie Upper Helderberg group, in Marion Co., Ohio. Collection of Columbia College, N. Y. Gomphoceras Sciotense, un. sp. Pal. O., Vol. ILI, Plate 4, Fig. 4; Pl. 5, Fig. 2; Pl. 6, Figs. 6 and 7. Shell of medium size or smaller, short obconical in form, or rapidly ex- panding from the apex upward ; slightly flattened in a dorso-ventral direc- tion, giving a broadly oval transverse section, which is a little more flattened on the dorsal than on the opposite side, in the more perfect specimen, but may not _be constantly so in all individuals. Septa shallow, arranged at nearly equal distances from each other in the larger parts, and numbering about seven in an inch, except near the outer chamber, where there are usu- ally one or two more closely arranged. The outer chamber is proportion- «lly short, and rapidly contracted in the upper part to about one-half the diameter below, to form the transversely sub-triangular or obscurely tri- lobed aperture, which is rounded at the lateral extremities, straightened on the dorsal side, and provided with a moderately deep but rather narrow sinus on the ventral margin. Siphuncle proportionally small, and situated close to the dorsal side. Only two individuals bave thus far been observed, and these show some slight variation in the form of the transverse section and in the proportional length of the outer chamber; the one retaining the chambers being shorter above, and more flattened on the dorsal side than the other. In this specimen, the,septa are somewhat obliquely arranged, being highest on the dorsal side, which may, however, be owing to oblique compression in the matrix. The individuals, being both internal casts, have afforded no opportunity of observing the surface structure. Formation and Locality.—In the limestone of the Upper New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 209 Helderberg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Colum- bus, Ohio. Collected by Mr. Hyatt. Cyrtoceras cretaceum, 2. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 4, Figs. 2 and 3. Shell of medium size, somewhat moderately expanding in its upward growth to the base of the outer chamber, from which point it again contracts to the aperture ; the increase not always regular, but in some individuals more abruptly expanding above than below. Shell slightly curving through- out its length, appearing less arcuate in the upper portion, owing to the contraction of the outer chamber toward the aperture. Transverse section oval, widest in a lateral direction, and with the inner surface much less arcu- ate than the outer or dorsal surface. Outer chamber proportionally short, the length not exceeding the dorso-ventral diameter of the lower end ; mar- gin simple, so far as can be determined from any of the specimens, showing only a broad, shallow sinuosity on each side. Septa somewhat closely arranged and deeply concave, but slightly increasing in distance in the upper part, the average length of the chambers being about one-tenth of an inch, but somewhat more crowded just below the outer one. Siphuncle of mode- rate size, situated a little within the dorsal surface, and very slightly ex- panded within the chambers. Surface of the shell marked only by transverse lines of growth parallel to the margin of the aperture. The shells are moderately abundant, and show Ge varila- tions in form among individuals, especially in the rate of in- crease in dimensions or in the regularity of the expansion, as well as in the comparative distance between the septa; a single individual showing a much greater distance between them in the upper part of its length. ‘The shell would probably be ‘con- sidered by some as belonging to the genus Oncoceras, as the decrease in diameter in the upper part of the outer chamber gives to the shell, below, the peculiar bulging appearance supposed to be characteristic of that genus; but the transverse form and elliptical section, together with the form of the siphuncle and other features, present characters common to the genus Cyrto- ceras. It is most nearly related, in general form, to C. Conradi, Hall, from the Marcellus Shales of New York, but attains a much greater size, has a shorter outer chamber, and is destitute of the small lip-like sinus on the ventral side, as seen in that one. The upper portion of Gomphoceras oviforme, Hall, from the limestone of the Marcellus Shale, bears considerable resemblance, except in the closing of the aperture, which constitutes a generic difference. 210 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. Formation and Locality.—\n the cherty layers of the Upper Ilelderberg limestone, near Dublin, and at Bellenaris quarry at Georgesville, Franklin Co., Ohio. Gyroceras Columbiense, u. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 6, Fie. 8. Shell of about a medium size, often attaining a diameter across the disc of about six inches, although the majority of the specimens seen will not mea- _ sure more than five. The shell is closely coiled, the volutions being in absolute contact and about one anda half or two in number. Volutions nearly circular in a transverse section, being a very little greater in the lateral direction than in the dorso-ventral, and the back of the volution barely perceptibly flattened on the outer portion of the larger one, but not percep- tibly so on the inner portions. Septa deeply concave and distantly arranged; the chambers measuring about half an inch each, on the outer two-thirds of the body-volution of a specimen where the vertical, or largest, diameter of. the disc is five inches. Position of the siphuncle not absolutely determined. Surface of the shell unknown. All the individuals of this species observed are internal casts, and occur in a rather rotten limestone, under conditions very unfayorable for the preservation of the shelly substance ; conse- quently the surface-characters have not been observed. It is an abundant species, but owing to the conditions of preservation, is not often found in collections. It will be readily distinguished from the other described species by the closely coiled volutions and the nearly circular section. It is perhaps more nearly re- lated to G. cyclops, Hall, 15th Rept. N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., than to any other described species; but it differs from that one in its smaller size, and more rapidly increasing as well as more closely coiled volutions, and does not appear to have been proyided with the broadly expanding and foliated varices which are so characteristic of that species. It might be objected, that as the shell of this species is unknown, the determination of the absence of these foliated expansions is not well authenti- cated ; but it may be answered, that as the two species are asso- ciated in the same layers in the quarries where they are both rather common, if they were really one and the same, the shell would be preserved on these as well as on the G. cyclops, and the expansions readily detected. Formation and Locality.x—In the limestones of the Upper New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 211 Helderberg group, near the lower part, at Smith and Price’s, and at other quarries near Columbus, Ohio. Gyroceras seminodosum, nb. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 4, Fig. 5. Shell small, compactly coiled, and consisting, in the specimen used, of a little more than two volutions, which increase rather rapidly in diameter with increased age ; they are somewhat wider transversely than in a dorso- ventral direction, and are slightly triangularly elliptical in a transverse sec- tion; the greatest transverse diameter being very slightly outside of the middle of the dorso-ventral diameter. The inner one and a half coils are smooth on the exterior, but the outer volution, for a little more than the larger half, is ornamented by a single series of comparatively large, trans- verse, triangularly elliptical nodes on each lateral surface, having the angular side of the node placed anteriorly and the opposite side nearly straight. The nodes are placed at distances from each other about equal to one-half the dorso-ventral diameter of the tube at the node indicated. The septa are not clearly defined and cannot be given with certainty; but they appear to be distantly placed on the inner portions of the shell, while on the nodose portion they seem to be placed at about half the distance of the nodes apart. The siphuncle has not been observed. The surface of the shell, as seen on a fragment of the substance remaining on the dorsum of the outer volution, is marked with rather close, distinct, revolving lines or ridges, crossed by more closely arranged transverse lines, which make a shallow retral bend in crossing the back of the shell. The specimen is probably an immature shell, but is a distinctly marked species, differing strongly in its form and nodose charac- ter from any of those assoeiated with it. It most nearly resem- bles G. (Hercoceras?) paucinodus, Hall, from the Upper Helder- berg group of New York (see Illust. Dev. Foss., Pl. 55, Figs. 1 and 2), but is less distinctly triangular in a transverse section, that one bemg widest near the outer portion of the volution, with a nearly regular sloping surface on the side of the whorl to its junction with the preceding one, while this species is rounded. The form of the nodes is also different—those being situated near the dorsal margin. The triangular form of these nodes is pecu- har in having the two short sides of the triangle directed forward. It also differs in haying a greater number of volutions for a given diameter. . Formation and Locality.—\n limestone of the Upper Helder- berg group, near Dublin, Ohio. Collected by Mr. Hyatt, of the State University, at Columbus, Olio. . “ne — we New Species of Fossils from Ohio. Species from the Marcellus Shales.* The following species occur in a highly bituminous brown shale, of but a few feet in thickness, and having intercalated beds of thin shaly limestone associated with it. The bed occurs near the upper part of the limestones heretofore referred to the Upper Helderberg group in Ohio, and below the layers known as the Delaware stone, characterized by an abundance of remains of Devonian fishes. These black or brown shales, so far as yet explored, contain only the following species, most of which are known forms, and some of them characteristic species of the Marcellus Shales of New York. The species Lingula Manni, Hall, occurs in the upper blue layers of the Delaware beds at Delaware, and in a corresponding position at other localities, but so far as yet known does not occur in the lower portions of the group. At one of the localities where the fossils were ob- tained from the brown shales, the layers immediately above these beds are thickly covered with specimens of Tentaculites scalariformis, Hall, and Spirifer gregaria, Clapp; and although both these species may be occasionally found at a lower horizon, they are never abundant except in the upper part of the group, and are unknown in the lower part. Judging from these cir- cumstances, together with the lithological character of the shales and the known position of the species occurring in them, it would appear reasonable to consider these brown bituminous shales and limestones as being the western representatives of the Marcellus Shales of New York; while the beds above them, characterized by the presenc? of large numbers of Tentaculites and Spirifer gregaria, would appear to represent the Hamilton group of New York. In pursuance of this idea, several sections have been critically examined in Central Ohio, and it is found that the blue Delaware stone is followed by rapid repetitions of brown shale, and thin-bedded shaly limestones, and finally by soft, blue, muddy shales, resembling the Moscow shales of New York, which are followed by beds of thin fissile black shales, representing the Genesee slates of the New York series. 4 * In Vol. V, Pal. N. Y., on pp. 146 and 147, after speaking of the section of rocks at the Falls of the Ohio, and the probability that the hydraulic cement bed and the layers above it, up to the base of the Black Slates, are of the age of the Hamilton beds of New York, the au- — ee rk oe Le a a a. a Fe ee ee Oe ow, * oh a Tee ee ee New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 213 The species recognized and described as occurring in the shales above referred to are as follows; most of them being previously known. The species marked as new are described below. Lingula Manni, Hall. Lingula Ligea, Hall. ? Discina minuta, Hall. DiscinaLodensis, Hall. Chonetes scitula, Hall. Chonetes reversa, %a. 8). Spirifera Maia, Billings’ sp. Letorhynchus limitaris, Vanuxem’s sp. Aviculopecten equilatera, Hall’s sp. Pterinea similis, VW. sp. Chonetes reversa, nb. sp, Pal. O., Vol. Ill, Plate 7, Figs. 8 and 9. Shell of about 2 medium size, semicircular in outline, with a long straight hinge-line exceeding the width of the shell below. Valves resupinate, or reversed in their curvature ; the ventral being very slightly convex in the earlier stages of growth, and subsequently recurved so as to appear con- cave ; the entire deflection from a plane being very little, so that the general appearance of this valve may be said to be nearly flat. Area linear. Hinge- line ornamented by four long, very slender spines on each side of the centre, which are projected from the hinge-line at an angle of about 65 degrees, measured on the outside, or 115 degrees as counted on the inside of the spine. Surface of the ventral valve marked by exceedingly fine strie, which are slightly alternating in size ; there being from two to five finer ones between the coarser kind. Interior of the valve characterized by fine pustules, arranged in indistinct lines, presenting the usual characteristics of the genus. Dorsal valve not positively known; but there is associated with it, in the same layers, a slightly convex valve with similar striz, but more distinctly alternating, which may possibly represent this valve. Its form is similar, and the convexity correspondingly great. This species is peculiar in its resupimate character, so far as thor says: ‘‘In the State of Ohio similar conditions may be inferred, from the fact that certain species of Hamilton fossils are published in the Ohio Geol. Rept. as from the Corniferous group.” By reference to the 28th Vol. of the Proc. of the Am. Association for the Advance- ment of Science, p. 297, it will be seen that, at the Saratcga meeting of the Association, I read a paper on the discovery of the Marcellus Shale in Ohio; in which it is stated that the rocks above that horizon (the Marcellus) would necessarily be Hamilton. This was in August, 1879. The yolume above-mentioned is dated, in the letter of transmissal, Dec. 15th, 1879. 214 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. the genus is known in American Devonian rocks, and this char- acter, together with its form, its fine striae, and its nearly erect slender spines, will readily distinguish it from any other species. The dorsal valve above spoken of was at first supposed to be the young of Strophodonta perplana, Conrad’s sp., but the similarity in size and character of striz to this species renders it doubtful. Formation and Locality.—In thin-bedded bituminous lme- stone, from above the ‘*Bone-bed” at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Ohio. Pterinea similis, n. sp. Pal. O., III, Plate 7, Fig. 15. Shell small, oblique; the body, exclusive of the wings, being almost regu- larly although obliquely ovate in outline, the anterior part being the larger ; hinge-line about two-thirds as long as the entire length of the valve ; anterior wing small, distinctly rounded on the end, and separated from the body of the shell, on the left valve, by a distinct sulcus along the surface, and which constricts the margin of the shell ; posterior wing one-third longer than the anterior side, pointed at the extremity and sinuate below. Body of the valve ventricose, strongly so on the umbone, with a strong tumid beak, which projects distinctly beyond the hinge. Surface of the left valve marked by distinct radii, which are plainly alternated in strength over the body of the valve, but less distinctly so toward and on the wings ; also, by less strong concentric lines, and varices of growth. Right valve unknown. The shell is of the type of Pterinea decussata, Wall, which occurs abundantly in the Hamilton group in New York, but is. of extremely small size, and very ventricose ; the proportionally strong varices of growth showing its adult character. The type is one represented in the Devonian rocks, from the Hamilton to the top of the Chemung, inclusive, in New York, by several dis- tinct species, but which is seldom recognized below this horizon. We may, therefore, consider it as an additional evidence of the age of the beds in which it is found. Formation and Locality.—In the thin shaly layers of bitu- minous limestones, from above the ‘* Bone-bed “at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Olio. wt New Species of Fossils froin Ohio. 21i The following species are from the limestones above the ‘*Bone-bed,”’ which resi on the top of the Marcellus Shale, in the vicinity of Columbus, Ohio, and are not known to pass be- low that horizon at any locality in that region. Gilbertsocrinus spiniferus—Trematocrinus spinigerus, UUall: 15th Rept. N. Y. State Cab., p. 128;—GWilbertsocrinus (Trema- tocrinus) spinigerus, Hall; Deser. of New Species of Crinoidea, from the Carbonif. Rock of the Miss. Valley, Plate 1, Fig. 9. Sprrifera ziczac, Hall. Plerinea flabella, Conrad’s sp. Grammysia bisulcata, Conrad's sp. Actinodesma subrecta, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. II, Plate 7, Pie. 20. Shell of moderate size; the body of the shell, exclusive of the wines and hinge-extensions, ovate in outline, and slightly oblique to the cardinal line. ‘Hinge-line extended in the form of strong auriculations or wings on the sides of the shell, the upper margin straight, or a little declining on each side of the beak; anterior wing short, triangular, and divided from the body of the shell by a deep and wide sub-triangular notch ; posterior side long and sub- mucronate at the extremity, three to three and a half times as long as the anterior side, and its area much greater, extending along the body of the valve to nearly half its length from the beak. Body of the left valve more than moderately convex, and strongly arcuate or bent between the beak and base of the shell ; so that when placed on a flat surface, the margin, especially on the posterior side, would be much elevated above the plane. Beak of the valve large, sub-tumid, and slightly extended above the cardinal line. Length of the body of the shell, from the cardinal line to the base, about one-fifth greater than across it in the opposite direction. Anterior border broadly rounded, the basal margin more sharply so, with a slight angularity at its junction with the nearly direct posterior border. Surface of the shell mark- ed by irregular, concentric, strongly lamellose lines, resembling those of the oyster, Right valve not yet observed from Ohio. The species is allied to A. recta—Aviculu recta, Conrad, but is shorter, more ventricose on the left side, more arcuate or - bent, and with less extended wings. It is not an uncommon species in the soft shales of the Hamilton group of New York, where it is readily recognized from 4. recta by the aboye-men- _ tioned characters. The A. recfu is most common in the arena- 216 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. ceous beds of eastern New York, while this is the prevailing form among the soft shales farther west. The right valve is there recognized as being shorter than the left, concave instead of con- vex, with an appressed beak or umbo not extending beyond the cardinal line, and the valve is much thinner in its substance. Formation and Locality.—In layers of brownish limestone above the ** Bone-bed,” at Fishinger’s mill, Franklin Co., Ohio. Collected by the Hyatt brothers, of the State University at Columbus. Genus Nyassa, H. & W. Prelim. Notice of Lamellib. Shells of the Up. Held., Hamilton and Chemung Groups, etc. N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1869, page 28. [Generic description omitted. R. P. W.]* Nyassa arguta, Pal. O., Vol. TM, Plate 7, Big s138: Nyassa arguta H. and W, Prelim. Notice of the Lamellib. Shells of the Upper Held., Hamilton and Chemung Groups, etc., distributed without author’s name, Dec., 1869, p. 28. Shell of medium size, transversely sub-ovate or sub-trapezoidal, much longer than high. Valves moderately ventricose, most prominent along the umbonal ridge, which is rather strongly arcuate and sub-angular. Beaks rather small and appressed, slightly incurved, and situated near the an- terior end. Surface of the valve generally declining from the umbonal ridge to the basal line, and with a slight sinus or sulcus below the ridge, which gradually widens toward the margin of the shell, where it causes a broad, but not marked, emargination in the border of the shell. Cardinal slope narrow and abrupt; hinge-line arcuate; posterior end of the shell nar- rowed ; anterior end broad, rounded, and slightly excavated below the beaks. Surface of the shell marked by concentric lines of growth parallel to the margin of the valve, and often forming rather strong, irregular varices, most distinctly marked on the anterior half of the shell. The Ohio specimens, although preserved in an entiely dif- ferent matrix, are yet such exact counterparts of the New York shells that no question can exist of their positive identity. Formation and Locality.—In limestone above the Bone-bed in ‘Tully township, Marion Co., Ohio. The specimen figured is from the State Cabinet at the State University, Columbus, Ohio. Genus Palzoneilo, H. & W. Preliminary Notice of Lamellib. Shells of the Upper Held., Hamilton and Chemung Groups, etc., N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1869, p. 6. - x See note at the close of this article. a. 2 > | ew —7 aT) New Species of Fossils from Ohio. Palzoneilo similis, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 8, Figs. 4 and 5. Shell oblong, with nearly equally rounded extremities, and almost parallel dorsal and ventral margins. Anterior end short, a little narrower than the body of the shell, resulting from the constriction below the beaks. Pos- terior end rounded, with a slight oblique truncation below the middle of the height, corresponding to the very shallow umbonal sulcus of the valves. Beaks situated within the anterior third of the length of the shell, small and enrolled. Valves ventricose, most prominent just below the umbones, and slightly sulcated along the posterior slope. The surface of the shell, so far as can be determined from the matrix, has been smooth or without visi- ble markings. On the internal cast, the condition in which the specimens are found, the muscular imprints are faintly marked—the pedal muscles being the most distinct. The species is closely related to P. (Leda) Barrisi, White and Whitf., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 8, p. 298, (Palaeo- nevlo Barrisi (W. and W.), H. & W., Prelim. notice of Lam. Shells of the Up. Held., Hamilton and Chemung groups, ete.,), but has been somewhat more nearly parallel on the margins, and has a smoother shell. Formation and Locality.—\n the calcareous concretions of the Hrie shale, at Leroy, Lake Co., Ohio, accompanying the fossil entomostracan from the same locality (next described). CIRRIPEDIA. Plumulites Newberryi, nu. sp; Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 8, Figs. 6—11. The specimens for which the above specific name is proposed, consist of several detached plates, and of one of several plates, irregularly folded together in such a manner as to be difficult of interpretation. The several plates vary considerably in form among themselves, and probably represent those from different parts of the body. The general form of the plates is triangular, with the apex, or initial point of growth, a little inclined to one side; the base, or margin of accretion, is usually the longest side, but not in all cases. One set of plates has the shorter sides diverging at nearly right-angles. On this form, the basal line is convex for more than two-thirds its length, and concave on the remaining por- 218 New Specres of Fossils from Ohio. tion, giving a sigmoidal outline; of the shorter sides, one is straight to near the apex, where it becomes rounded, and the other is slightly concaye. Another form has the shorter sides diverging at an angle of about 105 degrees, one slightly convex and the other concave; while the basal margin is convex in two sections, with-a constriction or interruption between the two sections, or at about one-third of its length from the straight margin. The plates of this and the preceding form have the surface regularly annulated transversely, parallel to the basal margin, the annulations very fine, and regularly increasing in size and strength from the apex to the base, except in aged speci- mens, Where they are again crowded near the border: five undu- lations may be counted in an eighth of an inch, where strongest. These forms, also, have the straight margin often fractured and bent, as if they had been broken along that side ; indicating that two such plates may have been united along this line; and on the only individual showing several plates together, this would appear to be the case. A third form of plate is narrowly trian- gular or conical, the basal border being the shortest, and simply convex ; the other sides being slightly curved throughout, but more distinctly so near the apex, which is obtusely rounded ; the lateral margins are of unequal length, and the annulations of the surface finer and more closely arranged than on the other forms. The individual specimens are much too few in number to give any very satisfactory idea of the general form of the complete body, or of the number of ranges of plates of which it may have been composed. There appears to be no reason, however, to doubt the correctness of the reference of these plates to the genus — Plumulites, Barrande, as their genera! form and surface strue- ture is exactly like those given by Dr. Barrande, and also to those given in Vol. II, Pal. Ohio, Pl. 4, Figs. 1 and 2 (P. Ja mest), as occurring in the rocks of the Hudson River group, at Cincinnati; while some idea may be obtained of the probable form of the entire body from the outline figure of a European species, represented in Fig. 3 of the same plate. These Devonian specimens, however, have been of very much greater size than the above, as the plates here figured are all represented of natural New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 219 size, the larger individual plates being more than an inch in transverse diameter, while the species above referred to is minute. The occurrence of forms of this genus 1n rocks of Devonian age is also a new feature in its history; as those of Europe are con- fined to the Lower Silurian formations and the lower, beds of the Upper Silurian ; while these occur above the middle Devo- nian. Formation and Locality.—In the Huron shale at Sheftield and Birmingham, Erie Co., Ohio; equivalents of the Genesee slates ‘and Portage group of New York. The following species are from the Maxville limestone of Maxville, Newtonville, and the neighboring parts of Ohio, equivalent to the Chester limestone, or Chester and St. Louis limestones, of the Mississippi Valley. CRINOIDEA. Cyathocrinus inequidactylus, n. sp. Pal O:, Vol. IIT, Plate 9, Figs. 5—8. Body of rather small size. Calyx deep cyathiform, being nearly hemi- spherical in one example, and somewhat broad obconical in another, and composed of smooth plates, which have only the general convexity of the the body, or very slightly tuberose. Basal plates minute to moderate size, higher than wide. Sub-radials large ; height and width nearly equal ; two of them heptagonal and the others hexagonal, the lower sides barely diverg- ing from a straight line. First radials wider than high, and about two-thirds as high as the sub-radials. Anals visible, three in number; the first elongate pentagonal, nearly twice as high as wide, and situated a little obliquely on the right side of the area; the other two are small and pentangular. Second radials, or first arm-plates, smaller than the first radials and narrowing up- ward, wedge-formed above, and each supporting lwo arms. On the pos- tero-lateral rays they are long and cylindrical, with the arms slender. On the anterior ray it is short and supports two slender arms ; while on the antero-lateral rays they support a slender arm similar to those of the other rays on the anterior side, and on the outer side an arm several times larger and stronger than the others, and composed of larger and stronger plates. Plates of the arms short and unequal-sided, and giving origin to jointed tentacula from the longer side of each plate, which is upon the alternate sides of the arm, or on the same side from every second plate. Surface of the plates smooth. Length of the arms and subsequent bifurcations not known. Column small, round, and composed of unequal-sized plates alter- nating with each other. The slender arms are preserved on two individuals to the length of about 220 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. one inch, and the strong antero-lateral arm on one, to more than an inch ; but no evidence of bifurcation appears. The inequality of the antero-lateral arms will be the distinet- ive feature of the species, as the form of the calyx is similar to many other species of the group. formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone (shaly portion), at Newtonville, Ohio. BRYOZOA. Synocladia rectistyla, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 9. Figs. 9 and 10. Bryozoum growing in spreading funnel-formed fronds, rising from a rooted base and widely diverging in their upward growth ; the inner surface of the cup bearing pores. Rays straight and somewhat rigid in their up- ward direction, with frequent bifurcations, which are not abrupt with ra- pidly diverging branches, but rise gradually from a thickened space, and gradually diverge as slender but constantly thickening rays until the normal strength is attained. The rays are slender, rather closely arranged; about six of them occupy- ing the space of a fourth of an inch in the widest parts, and from eleven to twelve may be counted in the same space in the most crowded parts. Transverse dissepiments nearly as strong as the longitudinal rays, and often slightly arched upwards between them in the wider parts, but more frequently directed obliquely upward in passing from one ray to the next, and very often directed upward to the right from one side of a ray, and to the left on the opposite side ; but they are generally direct in the more crowded portions. The middle of the ray on the poriferous surface is ele- vated or roof-like, with a central crest or ridge bearing distant nodes; a single row of large pores is arranged on each side, which are usually less than their own diameter apart, and more or less alternating with those of the opposite side. From two to three pores occupy each side of each fenestrule, and the pores are margined by an elevated lip, which on unworn spaces are very prominent. From one to three similar pores, although some- times of smaller size, occupy the surface of each dissepiment. Non-porifer- ous surface not observed. ; This species is somewhat similar to S. diserialis, Swallow (Trans. St. Louis Ac. Sci., Vol. I, p. 179), as identified and figured by Mr. F. B. Meek (Final Rept. of U.S. Geol. Surv. Neb., pl. 7, fig. 5), but differs in wanting the longitudinal nodose ridge between the pores of the dissepiments, and in having only a single row of pores on those parts occupying the New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 221 ‘middle of the dissepiment, as well as in the more slender, finer and more direct, and much more crowded rays, also in having a larger number of somewhat smaller pores on the rays. Mr. Meek, loc. cit., identifies the above species with Synocladia Cestriensis (Septipora Cestriensis, Prout, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. I, p. 448, pl. 18, fig. 2), which differs from the Ohio specimens in the stronger and thicker, as well as more flexuose rays ; In the rounded fenestrules. and smaller-sized pores, which are also more abundant, often showing three ranges on parts be- low bifurcations. On direct comp.rison of the Newtonville spe- cimens with specimens from Chester, Ill., these differences, especially those pertaining to the mode of growth, are very marked and characteristic. Formation and Localty.—In the Maxvile limestone (Ches- ter), at Newtonville, Ohio. Collecied by Prof. E. B. Andrews. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Pinna Maxvillensis, n. sp. PaliOs7) Viol, Plate 10; ebigs 5: Shell of about a medium size, very acutely triangular in outline, with highly convex valves; the length along the hinge equal to nearly three times the greatest width. Hinge-line straight, not quite as long as the shell below ; anterior end acute; basal margin very slightly arcuate, and the pos- terior extremity rather broadly rounded; the point of greatest length being at about one-third of the width below the hinge-line. Surface of the shell, except for a short distance within the basal margin, marked by moderately strong, simple radiating plications, about eighteen in number, as counted at the posterior end of the specimen figured, but increasing in number with increased growth; the additions being near the hinge. There are also nu- merous strong concentric lines of growth parallel to the margin, often form- ing undulations of the surface. I find no American species described that closely resembles this one; but P. flexicostata, McCoy, from the English Carboni- - ferous rocks (British Pal. Foss., p. 499, pl. 3, K, figs. 11—13), is very similar, but has slightly stronger radii, is somewhat broader, and differs in having a longitudinal depression just be- low the hinge-line, which this species does nut possess. Formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone, at Max- _ ville, Ohio. Collection of Prof. E. B. Andrews. ro) CO) ros) New Species of Fossils from Ohi. Allorisma Andrewsi, vn. sp. Pal. ©, Vol, Ml, Plate 10) hie y6: Shell of medium size or smaller, transversely elliptical in outline ; the length being about twice the height, and the thickness a little more than two-thirds the height. Valves ventricose, most rotund a little in advance ot the middle and along the umbonal ridge, and wedge-shaped posteriorly, as seen in a cardinal view; beaks of moderate size, slightly projecting above the hinge-line, incurved, directed anteriorly, and situated at about one-sixth of the entire length from the anterior end. Cardinal line straight or ap- pearing slightly concave, extending about three-fourths of the length of the shell from the beaks backward, and bordered by a proportionally large and wide escutcheon. Anterior end short, sloping forward from between the beaks, at about an angle of forty-five degrees to the hinge-line, to near the middle of the height of the shell, and then abruptly rounding backward into the somewhat regularly convex basal margin. Posterior end broadly rounded from the point of the umbonal ridge to the extremity of the cardinal line. Anterior end of the shell characterized by a very small lunule. Surface of the shell marked by several strong concentric undulations or folds, which are simple, and regularly increase in size and strength to near the full size of the shell; but near the outer margin of the valves, in the specimen figured, they are smaller and doubled by the interpolation of an intermediate rib. The undulations are crossed obliquely from the beak to the basal margin, just posterior to the middle, by a narrow, almost imperceptible sulcus, and along the crest of the umbonal ridge by a line of low-convex and faintly- marked nodes, one on the surface of each undulation; the posterior umbonal slope is also marked, immediately below the margin of the escutcheon, by a slightly concave sulcus, across which the undulations are more faintly marked than below. The species is closely allied to Allorisma clavata, McChesney, and was at first supposed to be identical ; but on comparison, it shows so many points of difference that it became necessary to consider it as a distinct species. Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the age of the Chester group (or Chester and St. Louis combined), at Newton- ville, Ohio. Collected by Prof. E. B. Andrews, to whom the species is dedicated. Allorisma Maxvillensis, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 10, Figs. 7 and 8: Shell small, the specimen used being a little less than one inch in length, and the height less than half the length. Form of the shell transversely New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 223 elongate, and cylindrically oval, the cardinal and basal margins parallel and very slightly curved, and the extremities very nearly equally rounded ; beaks small, inrolled, barely projecting above the cardinal line, and situated at about one-fourth of the entire length from the anterior end. Body of the shell very evenly and highly rounded from the cardinal to the basel margins, and almost as convex posteriorly as in front. Umbonal ridge scarcely per- ceptible, and the umbonal slope convex; escutcheon and lunule not defined; anterior slope abruptly rounded. Surface of the shell marked by faint con-. centric undulations of unequal strength, but most strongly marked on the posterior end and on the umbonal slope. The evenly convex and regularly cylindrical form of the shell, together with the inconspicuous beaks and the equal-sized ante- rior and posterior extremities, are distinguishing features of the species. ‘The shell shows evidence in its form and curvature, in a profile view, of having been slightly gaping behind. Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the age of the Chester group of Illinois, at Newtonville, Ohio. GASTEROPODA. Naticopsis zZic-zac, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. JII, Plate 10, Figs. 15 and 16. Shell small, the greatest diameter of the body-volution, in the only indi- vidual seen, being about nine-sixteenths of an inch; and the entire vertical height of the shell only half an inch. The shell is very obliquely ovate in form, and consists of about two and a half ventricose volutions, which increase somewhat rapidly in size to the last one, which forms nearly the entire bulk of the shell. The surface of the shell is ornamented by a series of strong and raised transverse lines, which, on the upper volutions, are simple as far as the suture below, and are directed strongly backward in their passage ; but on the body-volution they appear more distant and conspicuous, and are directed strongly backward in their passage for about one-third the vertical diameter of the volution, where they are bent for- ward at an acute angle, and after continuing for a distance nearly equal - to their length above, are again bent backward. Across the midde of the volution, they make two or more zig-zagging bends in vertical lines, forming a revolving band of vertical ndges on the periphery; below this band, the lines are directed forward obliquely, running nearly parallel to the base of the shell. The peculiarity of this shell consists entirely in the structure of the surface ornamentation, as the general form of the species 224 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. is similar to that of many others, but the peculiar zig-zag fea- ture of the ornamenting ridges will at once distinguish 1t from all other described species. Several ornamented forms of the genus are known from the Coal-measures, but their markings consist of nodes, either promiscuously scattered or arranged in patterns. Formation and Locality.—In the limestone of the age of the St. Louis and Chester beds of Illinois (Maxville limestone), ut Newtonville, Ohio. Wolopea Newtonensis, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol, IM, Plate 10) Hie 712) Shell of medium size, ovate in outline and ventricose, with a moderately elevated spire and extremely ventricose volutions, which increase very ra- pidly in bulk from the apex. Volutions three and a half to four in number, with strongly rounded surfaces and moderate sutures. Apical angle about seventy degrees. Aperture broad ovate, modified on the inner side by the preceding volution, pointed at the upper end and broadly rounded at the base. Surface of the shell smooth and the substance very thin The form of the shell is much like that of a Macrocheilus, but the substance is much thinner than those usually are, and the base of the columella is not prolonged, nor is there a solid uxis; but specimens show satisfactory evidence of having been distinctly and largely umbilicated. Formation and Locality.—In the Maxyille limestone (Chester), at Newtonville, Ohio. Collection of Columbia College, N. Y. Macrocheilus subcorpulentus, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. ILI, Plate 10, Fig. 14. Shell small, the specimens observed not exceeding five-eighths of an inch in length, and the diameter rather exceeding half the length; spire conical, the apical angle being about fifty degrees. Volutions about three or three and a half, rapidly increasing in diameter and very ventricose, the last one forming more than half the length and much the greater bulk of the shell; suture deep and well marked. Aperture ovate, short and oblique. Surface of the shell smooth. Columella not seen. This species is rather closely related to several forms which haye been described from the Coal-measures of the Western States, but differs in the form of the volutions somewhat from SS ee ee New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 225 any, and in the more regular tapering spire,—those mostly hay- ing the body-yolutions proportionally enlarged. Formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone (Chester and St. Louis groups), at Newtonville, Ohio. Collected by Prof. H. B. Andrews. Polyphemopsis melanoides, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. If, Plate 10, Fig. 18. Shell rather below a medium size, elongate-fusiform ; the length nearly twice and a half the greatest diameter, when not compressed ; spire ele- vated, pointed at the apex, the apical angle being about thirty-five degrees when uncompressed. The specimen figured gives on measurement thirty degrees in the line of compression, and forty degrees in the opposite direc- tion. Volutions about five and a half, gradually increasing in size, mode- rately and evenly convex, with distinct sutures. Aperture elongate ovate, widest across the middle, rounded and effuse below and pointed above. . Columella not observed. Surface apparently smooth. The species is nearly of the form of W/. fusiforme, Hall (Geol. Rept. Iowa, Vol. I, Part 2), from the Coal Measures of Iowa, but is considerably more slender. It is possible it may not pro- perly belong to the genus, as the columella has not been closely observed; but so far as can be determined, it appears to be twisted. Formation and Locality.—In the Maxyille limestone, at New- tonville, Ohio. Collected by Prof. E. B. Andrews. Bellerophon alternodosus, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 10, Figs. 17—19. Shell of about a medium size, and somewhat subglobose in general form, with an appearance of being slightly flattened on the dorsum in immature specimens ; while on the adult forms, the dorsum is marked on the outer half of the body-volution by a double series of rounded nodes, those on one side of the centre alternating with those of the other side, and the inner margins of the two series interlocking with each other. Aperture broadly elliptical, strongly modified by the projection of the preceding volution, on the inner margin. Auriculations largely developed and slightly reflected. Axis very distinctly perforate. Inner lip somewhat callous on the pro- truding inner volution. Surface of the shell, so far as can be ascertained, marked only by lines of growth, beyond the nodes mentioned. The species is somewhat similar in general form to B. Mont- fortianus, N. and P., from the Coal Measures, in its general form, but does not possess the strong transverse folds nor the 226 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. carina between the lines of nodes marking the dorsum. {t also differs in the alternating positions of the nodes. Formation and Locatity.—In the Maxville limestone at New- tonville, Ohio. Collection of Columbia College, N. Y. CEPHALOPODA. Nautilus pauper, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 10, Fig. 23. Shell somewhat below the medium size, and consisting of about two and a half volutions, which increase rather rapidly in size, and are so coiled as to expose almost the entire diameter of the inner coils in the umbilical cavity ; the outer one embracing only the dorsal surface of the inner volu- tion. Volutions quadrangular in form, with the lateral diameter only about two-thirds as great as the dorso-ventral diameter ; while the dorsal and ventral surfaces are nearly vertical to the plane of the sides, so far as can be determined from the specimen in hand ; or possibly the dorsal sur- face may be slightly rounded. The sides of the shell are marked by a faint, narrow, revolving sulcus bordering the margin of the umbilicus, and by a correspondingly faint ridge close to the dorsal margin; while a much stronger rounded ridge occurs on the surface at about one-third of the width of the volution from the dorsal border. Internal features of the shell not known. A single individual only of the species has been observed, and is altogether too imperfect to reveal all the features. It consists of the non-septate portion of the shell, in the condition of an internal cast, with the impression of one side of the entire shell ; but gives no indications of the septa themselves. ‘The only fea- tures indicating its cephalopodous nature, upon which one can rely, are its symmetrical form, and the evidences of a similar ornamentation on the opposite sides; otherwise it might have been supposed to represent a form of Huomphalus. Formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone (Ches- ter), near Rushville, Ohio. Collection of Prof. E. B. Andrews. Fossils from the Coal Measures. CRINOIDEA. Cyathocrinus Somersi, nu. sp. Pale @:; Vol. Il, Plate 11; Pics: 4yandy: Calyx very shallow, being low and spreading; the extreme height to the top of the first radial plates not exceeding one-fourth of the diameter ; the New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 22% sides, above the middle of the sub-radial plates, gradually and almost evenly curving. Centre of the calyx below deeply impressed, the cavity embracing the basal and inner half of the sub-radial plates. Basal plates very small, extending but little beyond the circumference of the proportion- ally small column, and forming by their union a somewhat regular penta- gon. Sub-radial plates of medium size, four of them being equal, and pointed at their upper ends, the upper edges being convex ; the fifth plate is larger than the others, and is truncated above by the very small first anal plate, which rests between the adjacent first radials, and has apparently joined three other plates above. The surface of this plate bears a single round granulose tubercle. First radial plates nearly twice as wide as high; their lateral faces being short and uniting with those of the adjacent plate, except on the anal side, where they are separated by the first anal plate. Articulating face for the second radials nearly straight, but deeply grooved. Second radial plates short; that of the anterior ray being cuneiform above, and has supported an arm-plate on each upper sloping surface. The second radials of the other rays have not been fully determined; but on the an- tero-lateral rays, where partially detached plates remain, they have been quadrangular, as if for the support of other radial plates in a direct series. Surface of the inner half of the sub-radial plates smooth, while the outer half and the entire surface of the other plates are covered with proportion- ally large, distinct, irregular tubercles, which are flattened on their surfaces and covered with numerous small, distinct granules. The granules also extend to parts of the intermediate surface. The upper margin of the first radial is bounded by an elevated transverse ridge, which is also granulose. This species bears considerable resemblance in its general sur- face-markings to Hupachycrinus tuberculatus, M. and W. (Geol. Sury. Ills., Vol. V, Pl. 24, Figs. a, 0), but the tubercles are yery distinctly granulose. It, however, does not possess the structure of Hupachycrinus, haying only one small anal plate, the upper end of which projects above the line of the first radials. The only specimen yet obtained of the species measures about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and is about three-six- teenths of an inch high to the top of the first radial plates. Formation and Loculity.—\n the Coal-measures at Carbon Hill, Hocking Co., Ohio. Collected by Mr. Somers, of Colum- bus, Ohio. Zeacrinus Mooresi, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 11, Figs. 6—10. Form of entire body unknown. Calyx of moderate size and pentagonal in outline, very broadly cyathiform or shallow cup-shaped ; the region of the basal plates being impressed, and the radials but moderately curving 228 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. upward at their outer edges. Basal plates small, forming by their combi- nation a nearly rezular pentagon. Sub-radials proportionally large, wider than high, four hexagonal and one on the anal side heptagonal. Sub-radi- als short, but not very broad, twice to twice and a half as wide as long ; the cicatrix for the second radials very large and nearly straight. The anal plates, three of which are preserved, are longer than wide. Column small, round, composed near the calyx of alternately small and large plates, with very coarse radiating lines of articulation. Surface of calyx smooth, except a line of granules just within the margin of the sub-radial plates. The second radial plates present the strong specific feature of the species, and are large and spine-bearing, as in Zeacrinus mucrospinus, McChes. ‘The spines are long, much thickened and bulbous in the lower part, presenting in this respect a strong contrast with those of that species. The cicatrix for the attach- ment of the arm-plates is very large, showing that the plates above were of large size. Arms and dome unknown. The species has been quite abundant, as the spines are found in great numbers, and vary considerably in size, according to the width of the first radial plates upon which they have rested. But all are thickened and bulbous, and many of them are more than an inch in length. They are seldom found attached to the calyx, but are scattered through the shale in the bed where found. Formation and Locality.—In shale of the Coal-measures at Carbon Hill, Hocking Co., Ohio. Named in honor of H. Moores, Esq., of Columbus, Ohio, their discoverer. BRACHIOPODA. Discina Meekana, nt. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 11, Figs. 1—3. Discina nitida ? (Phil.) M. and W., Geol. Ills., Vol. V, p. 572, pl. 25, fig. 1;— not D. nitida, Phillips, Geol. Yorkshire, Vol. II, p. 221, pl. 11, figs. 10—13. Shell of moderate size or larger, circular or sub-circular in outline. Dorsal valve convex, with an elevated beak which is directed backward and situ- ated at about one-third of the length of the shell from the posterior margin. Posterior slope slightly concave just below the apex; anterior slope convex. Surface of the shell, when preserved, marked by fine, even, but elevated and regular concentric lines, with flattened interspaces ; about ten or eleven of the elevated lines occupy a space of an eighth of an inch on the middle of a shell, being finer within and coarser beyond that point. On the par- tially exfoliated shell, fine radiating vascular lines are perceptible. Ventral New Species of Fossils from Ohio. ) valve flat, discoidal, circular in outline, or perceptibly clongated in some cases ; the apex a little more than one-third the length of the shell from the posterior margin. Foramen small, elongate-elliptical, narrow, not extend- ing more than one-fourth of the distance from the apex toward the margin, and the depression somewhat further. Surface marked as in the other valve. This shell would appear to be identical with the one described and figured by Messrs. Meek and Worthen as D. nitida? under the supposition that it was the same as that figured by Prof. Phillips, in the Geol. Yorkshire Coast, Vol. I, pl. 11, figs. 10—13; but it differs very much in outline from those figures, as well as those given by other authors, in its circu'ar form ; those being ovate, narrowed behind and widened in front; also, in haying the apex much more distant from the margin. They also cite D. Missowriensis, Shumard, as a synonym of the Eu- ropean species. That author indicates his shell as parabolic in outline; from which statement I should consider it as distinct from the present species. Formation and Locality.—tn the Coal-measures at Carbon Till and Flint Ridge, Ohio; also in Llinois and Iowa. Crania carbonaria, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. IJ, Plate 11, Figs. 11 and 12. Shell small, none of the specimens observed exceeding three-eighths of an inch in diameter; sub-circular in outline, or varied in form by the outline of the object to which they are attached. Free valve depressed convex, marked by a few concentric lines of growth ; attached valve thin, but with a slightly thickened margin. Posterior muscular impressions large and sub-marginal, the others being nearly central and forming a small eleva- tion just posterior to the middle of the valve. The shells of this species are found attached to the spines of Zeacrinus and other bodies, one of those figured being upon the operculum of Naticopsis. They are very thin, and not easily detected in the roughened condition caused by the adhering material in which most of the fossils from these beds are found. Species of this genus are rather rare in the Coal-measures, but very few having been described. Crania Permiana, Shumard, from the white limestones of the Guadalupe Mts., Texas, is a large form, and probably not a Crania, according to the descrip- tion given. C. modesta, White and St. John, from the Coal- 230 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. measures of Iowa, is described as ‘‘ rather small, finely punctate, smooth, except somewhat strong concentric lines of growth toward the margins. Upper valve moderately convex, umbo oblique, nearly central. Lower valve moderately concave.” There would appear to be some similarity between the upper valves of this and the Ohio species; but the remark concerning — the lower valve being’ ‘‘ moderately concave” throws considera- ble doubt on their identity, as the lower valve of this species is attached over its entire surface, while that, one would appear to be free or partially free, if it is a Cravnia. Formation and Locality.—In the Coal-measures of Carbon Hill, Hocking Co., Ohio. Collected by H. Moores, Esq., of Columbus, Ohio. GASTEROPODA. Naticopsis Ortoni, n. sp. Pal. O:, Vol. Ill, Plate i2, Figs: 12 andes Shell small, with a somewhat depressed conical spire, which forms an angle of about 105 degrees, and the two and a half to three volutions are obliquely flattened on their upper side, in the direction of the spire; the outer one being marked just below the suture by a barely perceptible con- cave channel of considerable width, which produces a very slight angularity of the upper part of the volution. Suture-line slightly grooved. Lower side of the volution rounded ; umbilicus closed; callus slight ; aperture ob- liquely ovate at the outer margin, but rounded within from the excessive thickening of the shell. Surface of the shell marked by fine, rather equal and somewhat regular transverse strie of growth, most distinctly marked on the lower half of the volution. On the outer half of the last volution, there occur lines of nodes, very faintly indicated, having a direction opposite to the growth-lines, and becoming fainter and finally imperceptible toward the lower side. The species resembles V. nana, M. & W. (Geol. Rept. Ils., Vol. III, p. 365, pl. 32, fig. 4), in size and general form, but differs from it in the greater flattening of the volution in the direction of the spire, and in the faintly nodose surface. formation and Locality.—In a thin cherty band of the Coal- measures in the railroad cutting at Mrs. Banks’ farm, Falls Township, Hocking Co., Ohio. New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 231 Loxoneima plicatum, 2. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 11, Figs. 14 and 19. Shell small and slender, spire elevated, presenting an apical angle of about fifteen degrees ; composed of about eleven volutions, in the example used and illustrated, which are flattened on the surface in the direction of the spire, and marked by strong vertical plicee, which are directed a little forward in their passage across the volution from above downward. The body or largest volution, counting from the lip backward, contains fifteen of these plications, and the volutions above contain nearly the same num- ber ; those of the several volutions being in line with those on the one below, but set enough back of it to be in line with the slope of the plication. This gives them a somewhat spiral arrangement on the shell, the whale having a twist of about one-fourth of one turn in the length of the shell. On the last volution the plicze are not distinct much below the bulge of the whorl. Aperture elongate and pointed below. Suture distinct, but not grooved or banded. Columella straight, about half as long as the aperture, solid, and terebra-like: shell without umbilicus. The species belongs to a group of the genus which has but few representatives in our Coal-measures ; and even those that are nearest allied to it appear to differ in the form of the colu- mella, which is somewhat peculiar; and if other species should appear presenting these same characters, it may be necessary to separate them generically from the true Loxonema. Formation and Locality.—In the Coal-measures of Carbon Hill, Wocking Co., Ohio. Collected by H. Moores, Egy. CEPHALOPODA. Nautilus Ortoni, n. sp. Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 12, Fig. 20. Shell of medium size, and consisting of about two and a half or three closely coiled volutions, but which are not at all embracing ; the outer one being simply in close contact with the medio-dorsal portion of the next within, and exposing nearly the entire dorso-ventral diameter of the shell. Volutions transversely sub-pentangular, being angularly convex on the back, strongly sub-angular on the sides, and concave on the abrupt umbili- cal slope, which forms a somewhat sigmoidal curve resembling an ogee moulding, while the slightly concave ventral surface is quite narrow, and forms a fifth surface. Laterai angles obtuse or round sub-angular, and ornamented by a series of nodes which are strong and very distinct on the inner coil, broad and rounded on the first part of the last volution, and be- come obsolete on the outer third. The substance of the shell has been very thick and strong, and the surface shows no evidence of growth-markings or strie. Septa and other internal features unknown. 232 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. The shell resembles somewhat N. spectabilis, M. and W., but has a smaller number of coils in a shell of corresponding size, while the concayity of the umbilical slope and the sub-angular back are strong distinguishing features. Formation and Locality.—In the Coal-measures at Springfield, Summit Co., Ohio. Cabinet of the School of Mines, N. Y. City. Nautilus (Gyroceras?) subquadrangularis, n. sp. PalOy Al, Plate oiiee le: Shell of about a medium size, consisting of two volutions, as seen on the specimen used, which increase somewhat rapidly in size with increased length, and are closely coiled so as to bring them in close contact, but not to be in any degree embracing. The inner volution, however, is coiled in so large a circle that it leaves an opening within it of about one inch in di- ameter. The shell is at first circular in section, but before the completion of the first coil the form has become modified so as to produce a sub-quad- rangular section, narrowest on the dorsal side, and the second volution be- comes distinctly quadrangular, being nearly as wide on the dorsum as across the lateral face; but the angles are all distinctly rounded, and the inner or umbilical margins most particularly so. The inner part of the shell has a line of strong node-like undulations on each dorsal angle, which become obsolete at about the first third of the second volution. Margin of the aper- ture greatly extended on the sides beyond the line of the inner edge, and apparently sinuate on the back. Septa deeply concave and numerous; those at the base of the outer chamber showing abotit three chambers in the space of one inch, and gradually decreasing in distance toward the earlier part of the shell. On the quadrangular parts, they are deeply receding on the sides and back, and correspondingly advanced on the an- gles ; a consequence of the quadrangular form on a deeply concave septum. Surface of the shell apparently smooth and the substance thin. Siphon unknown. The species is peculiar in its quadrangular form, and in the wide opening through the centre; in these characters it differs from any previously described species. It is of a form that is with difficulty placed in the genus Mautilus,—its characters, so far as the external features are concerned, nearly resembling those of Gyroceras,—and in the absence of a knowledge of the position of the siphuncle, must remain doubtful. Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the Coal-measures, at Canfield, Ohio. Collected by H. C. Bowman, and now in the cabinet of the School of Mines, New York City. Ow Us A) New Species of Fossils from Ohio. APPENDIX. Leiorhynchus Newberryi. LE1IoRuyYNCHUS NEWBERRYI, H. & W., 28d Rept. State Cab., N. Y. In the description of this species it is correctly referred to the Chemung group, but improperly to the Waverley group on the plate. Genus Pholadelia, H. & W. Preliminary notice of Lamellibranchiate Shells of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung groups, etc. (State Cab. Nat. Hist., Decem., 1869, p. 63). The name (‘‘ Hall, n. g.”) incorrectly inserted without my know- ledge.—R. P. W. Pholadelia Newberryi. PHOLADELLA, NEwWBERRYI, H. & W. Prelim. Notice, cited above, p. 65. Allorisma (Sedgwickia ?) pleuwropistha, Meek; Pal. Ohio, Vol. I, p. 309, Plate 13, Figs. 4a and 4b. Pleurotomaria Mississippiensis. PLEUROTOMARIA MIssIssIPPIEnsis, White & Whitf., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1862, p. 208, Vol. 8. Pleurotomaria textiligera, Meek ; Pal. Ohio, Vol. I, p. 314, Pl. 13, Figs. Ta and b. Note on the Marcellus Shale and other Members of the Hamilton Group in Ohio, as determined from Palzontologi- cal Evidence, During the early summer of 1878, Pres’t Edward Orton wrote, asking if I could spend a few days with him in central and southern Ohio, in an effort to ascertain from paleontological evidence, the true horizon of certain layers of rock which had been somewhat of a difficulty to him; and in the month of August I spent several days with him for that purpose. While making” 284 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. these somewhat hurried observations at a locality about six miles N. W. of Columbus, in Perry township, on the east bank of the Scioto River, we accidentally discovered a thin bed of dark brown shale, somewhat fissile and bituminous in character, in what Prof. Orton had considered as a representative of the Delaware limestone of Delaware, Ohio. The peculiar texture of the shales, occurring where I had expected only a light-colored limestone, excited my interest; and after a few minutes’ examination, I discovered that they contain numerous flattened shells of Levo- rhynchus limitaris, Vanuxem. I also obtained from them two specimens of Discina minuta, and examples of Lingula Manni, Hall; the two former being well-known and characteristic forms of the Marcellus shales of New York. On examination, we found that these shells, especially the Leiorhynchus, extended through a thickness of several feet of the rock, and that the peculiar bituminous character of the shale accompanied them, but with intercalations of thin layers of less bituminous and lighter-colored limestones. Subsequently, at a point nearly op- posite Dublin, Ohio, some miles north of the above-mentioned locality, the same shale was again recognized in a corresponding horizon, accompanied by the same species, the Leiorhynchus being quite numerous. At a subsequent visit, Mr. Hdward Hyatt obtained Discina Lodensis, Hall, another New York Marcellus species. At this second locality, immediately above the shale, and while the limestone layers retain much of the bituminous character, the layers become thicker and more calca- reous, and their surfaces are covered with the shells of Spirifera gregaria, Clapp, and Tentaculites scalariformis, Hall, both of which are likewise common in the blue limestone eye at Dela- ware, Ohio. A section of the rocks at the first-mentioned locality, six miles N. W. of Columbus, on the east bank of the Scioto, subsequently furnished by Prof. Orton, is as follows : The lower bed, No. 1 of section, is a heavy-bedded limestone, about thirty feet thick, representing the Columbus quarries, in- cluding the coral beds and those containing the large cephalo- pods. (Lower Corniferous of the Ohio Geol. Rept.) No. 2, a thin layer of limestone, four to six inches thick, New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 235 densely filled with teeth, plates and bones of fishes, locally known as the ‘‘ Bone-bed.” No. 3, about thirty feet of thin-bedded shaly limestone, the “Delaware bed” of Prof. Orton. The upper part of this is supposed to represent the beds of similar character at Delaware, Ohio, which contain the large fish-remains. No. 4, about fifteen feet of bluish, somewhat marly shales, the ‘‘ Olentangy shales” of N. H. Winchell. This is followed above by the Huron shales, the supposed equivalents of the Genesee slates and Portage shales of New York. Near the lower part of No. 3, only a few feet above the ** Bone-bed,” occurs the dark brown shale in question, with the peculiar fossils, which I have no hesitation in pronouncing the equivalent of the Marcellus shales of New York.. Admitting this—and there certainly appears to be no alternative—the rocks found, above this limit should represent the Hamilton group of the New York system; and we ought to find some fossils here, characteristic of that formation, which would not pass below this line. ‘To ascertain if this was so, I requested Mr. Edward Hyatt, who has collected carefully the fossils around Columbus, to furnish me a list* of the species known, with their horizons indicated ; and also requested the use of specimens of species not known to occur below the horizon of the ‘‘ Bone-bed,”— that being the most easily recognized limit, and the one most generally studied in conuection with the vertical distribution. Contrary to my expectations, the species yet known not to pass below the ‘‘ Bone-bed ” are very few. ‘These, with the exception of the Tentaculites scalariformis, have been illustrated on Plate 7, and are, with two exceptions, known Marcellus and Hamilton types,—one being a new species, and the other (Spirifera Maia, Bill.) occurring in the Upper Helderberg limestone in Canada. The examination of the upper layers for characteristic fossils was not carried far enough to make it perfect, owing to Mr. Hyatt’s absence from Columbus ; but the few forms found above these bituminous layers will readily be recognized as character- istic of the Hamilton group, and warrant one in considering the * These lists will be found appended at the end of the present article. 236 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. Black Shales and other beds coming above these thin limestones in central Ohio, as equivalent to the Genesee Slates and succeed- ing formations of New York.* The following lists, prepared by E. and H. Hyatt, of Columbus, Ohio, are from the limestones within 24 miles of that place. Those of the first list are from below the horizon of the ‘‘ Bone- bed,” and the next from above; Strophomena rhomboidalis being the only species fully recognized from both horizons. All spe- cies have been collected by them from known horizons, or have been seen from the beds by myself. SPECIES FROM BELOW THE ‘‘ BONE-BED.” PROTOZOA. STROMATOPORA, De Blainville. C. granulosa, Nich. S. nodulata, Nich. S. ponderosa, Nich. S. Sanduskyensis, Rominger. S. substriatella, Nich. Cannopora, Phillips. C. columnaris, Nich. C. densa, Nich. RECEPTACULITES, De France. R. Devonicus, Whitt. RADIATA. Favosires, Lamarck. * Since writing the above remarks, Vol. 5 of the Palzeont. of New York has been published. In it the author has, on page 139, some remarks on the limestones at the Falls of the Ohio, and their relations to the Hamilton group of New York. After showing that the Hydraulic-eement beds of the Falls of the Ohio are the equivalents of the Hamilton group of New York (which had already been stated in the Geol. Rept. Ind., 1875, pp. 147, 148, and also shown in sections on page 157), the author remarks, ‘‘ In the State of Ohio. similar conditions may be inferred, from the fact that certain known species of Hamilton fossils are published in the Ohio Geolo- gical Reports as from the Corniferous group.” At the meeting of the Am. Assoc. for the Ad- vancement of Science, at Saratoga, August. 1879, I read a notice of the occurrence in Ohio of rocks representing the Marcellus shales of New York, in which it was shown that a considera- ble thickness of the limestones previously recognized as ‘‘Corniferous ” in Ohio, were aboye the horizon of the beds which I had recognized, from paleontological and lithological evi- dence, as of the age of the Marcellus shale, and would be of necessity equivalents of the Hamilton group. New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 237 F. basaltica, Gold. FE, Gothlandica, Lamarck. (?) F. hemispherica, Yand. and Shumard. F. invaginata, Nich. fF pleurodictyoides, Nich. fF. polymorpha, Gold. ? fF. turbinata, Billings. MICHELINA, De Koninck. M. convexa, Emmons. M. maxima, 'Troost. Emmonstia, Ed. and Haime. EF. Emmonsi, Hall. TRAcCHYPORA, Ed. and Haime. T. elegantula, Billings. AULOpOoRA, Goldfuss. A. cornuta, Bill. A. filiformis, Bill. A. tubeformis, Gold. ? Syrincopora, Goldf. ? S. Hesingeri, Bill. S. Maclurei, Bill. S. tabulata, Ed. and Haime. EripoPpHyLuuM, Ed. and Haime. E. Simcoense, Bill. E. strictum, EK. and H. E. Vernewilanum, KB. and H. STYLASTREA, Lonsdale. S. Annae, Whitt. ZAPHRENTIS, Rafinesque. Z. cornicula, Ed. and H. Z. Hdwardsi, Nich.. Z. gigantea, Ed. and H. Z. prolifica, Bill. Z. Wortheni, Nich. CYATHOPHYLLUM, Goldf. C. rugosum, Hall. C. Zenkeri, Bill. HADRIOPHYLLUM, Ed. and H. H. DP’ Orbignyi, Ed. and H. 238 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. HELIOPHYLLUM, Hd. and H. H. confluens, Hall. Je Jello, WC. pune. jal. AULACOPHYLLUM, Ed. and H. A. sulcatum, Hid. and H. CYsTIPHYLLUM, Lonsdale. C. Americanum, Ed. and H. C. Ohioense, Nich. CRINOIDEA. MEGISTOCRINUs, O. and 8. M. spinulosus, Lyon. DoLaTocRINws, Lyon. D. multiradiatus, Hall. D. radiatus, Hall. BLASTOIDEA. NUCLEOCRINUS Conrad. N. Verneuil, Troost. CopastEeR, McCoy. C. pyramidatus, Shumard. ANCYROCRINUS, Hall. A, spinosus, Hall. MOLLUSCA. BRYOZOA, Emmerich. Sticropora, Hall. S. Gilberti, Meek. LICHENALIA, Hall. LL. lichenoides, Meek. BRACHIOPODA. Discina, Lamarck. D., grandis, Vanux.? CRANIA, Retzius. (. crenistriata, Hall. C. Hamiltoniae, Hall. Ortuis, Dalman. O. Livia, Bill. O. propinqua, Hall. O. Vanuxemi, Hall. STREPTORHYNCHUS, King. S. flabellum, Whitf. New Species of Fossils from Ohio. S. Pandora, Bill. SrropHoponta, Hall. S. ampla, Hall. S. demissa, Conrad. S. hemispherica, Hall. S. inequiradiata, Hall. S. nacrea, Hall. S. Patersoni, Hall. S. perplana, Conrad. S. subdemissa, Hall. ??9@ STROPHOMENA, Ratfinesque. S. rhomboidalis, Wilck. CHONETES, Fischer. C. acutiradiata, Hall. C. arcuata, Hall. C. deflecta, Hall. C. mucronata, Hall. ? C. Yandellana, Hall. PRODUCTELLA, Hall. P. spinulicosta, Hall. SPIRIFERA, Sowerby. S. acuminata, Con. iS. duodenaria, Hall. S. euryteines, Owen. S. fimbriata, Con. S. gregaria, Clapp. S. Greert, Hall. S. macra, Hall. S. macrothyris, Hall. S. Manni, Hall. S. Marcyt, Hall. S. Oweni, Hall. S. segmenta, Hall. S. varicosa, Hall. SPIRIFERINA, D’Orb. S. raricosta, (Conrad.) CykTINA, Davidson. C. Hamiltonie, Hall. Meristetna, Hall. ° — 8) 240 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. M. nasuta, (Conrad.) M. scitula, (Hall.) NucLeEospira, Hall. N. concinna, Hall. ATRYPA, Dalman. A. reticularis, Linn. tHYNCHONELLA, Fischer. R. Billingsi, Hall. R. Carolina, Hall. Rk. Dotis, Tell. fk. Thetis, Billings. R.? raricosta, Whitt. PENTAMERELLA, Hall. iPRardie seall TEREBRATULA, Schlotheim. T. Sullivantt, Hall. 'TTROPIDOLEPTUS, Hall. - T. carinatus, Conrad. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. AVICULOPECTEN, McCoy. A. crassicostata, H. and W. A. paralis, Conrad. PTERINEA, Goldf. P. flabella, Conrad? ‘The specimens referred to this species are very doubtfully identified. They are large coarse forms, very unlike any of those in the higher beds. MytiLarca, H. and W. M. ponderosa, H. and W. M. percarinata, Whitt. ConocaRDIUM, Brown. C. trigonale, Hall. C. Ohioense, Meek, is the young of the above. GoniopHora, Phillips. G. perangulata, H. and W. PARACYCLAS, Hall. P. lirata, Conrad. P. occidentalis, H. and W. P. Ohioensis, Meek, is the same as P. Jirata, Conrad. New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 241 Mopromorpua, H. and W. M. elliptica ? M. perovata, Meek. SANGUINOLITES, McCoy. . S. Sanduskyensis, Meek. GASTHROPODA. PLATYCERAS, Conrad. . attenuatum, Meek. . bucculentum, Hall. . carinatum, Hall. . conicum, Hall. . dumosum, Conrad. . multispinosum, Meek. . sguadlodens, Whitt. PLAtTyostoma, Conrad. Reiichas. alll. ~ HUOMPHALUS, Sowerby. FH. Decewi, Billings. Houopea, Hail. HI. rotundata, Wall, sp. TursBo, Klein? T. Kearneyi, Hall. T. Shumardana, Yandell. Isonema, M. and W. | I. bellatula, Hall. I. depressa, H. and W. I. humilis, Meek. XENOPHORA, Fischer. AX. antiqua, Meek. Naricopsis, McCoy. N. equistriata, Meek. NV. cretacea, H. and W. NV. levis, Meek. Loxonema, Phillips. L. Leda, Hall. L. Hamiltonie, Hall. L. parvulum, Whitt. LD. pexutum, Hall. ORTHONEMA, M. and W. Rel ve) Bul ae ae) Se] a9 co New Species of Fossils from Ohio. O. Newberryi, Meck. MacrocHeiuus, Phillips. M. priscus, Whitt. PLEUROTOMARIA, De France. P: adjutor, Hall. P> Doris, Mail: P. Hebe, Hall. P. Lucina, Hall. Muxcuisonia, De Verneuil. M. desiderata, Hall. M. Maia, Hall. M. obsoleta, Hall. DentTALiIumM, Linneus. D. Martim, Whitf. BELLEROPHON, Montfort. B. Newberryi, Meek. B. Pelops, Hall. B. propingua, Meek. PTEROPODA. ConvuLARIA, Miller. C. elegantula, Meek. TENTACULITES, Schloth. T. scicula, Hall. CHEPHALOPODA. ORTHOCERAS, Breynius. O. nuntiwm, Hall. O. Ohioense, Hall. O. profundum, Hall. TREMATOCERAS, Whitf. T. Ohioense, Whitt. GOMPHOCERAS, Sowerby. G. amphora, Whitt. G. eximium, Hall. G. Hyatti, Whitt. G. Sciotense, Whité. CYRTOCERAS, Goldfuss. C. cretaceum, Whitt. C. Ohioense, Meek. C. undulatum, Vanuxem 7 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 243 GYROCERAS, Meyer. G. Columbiense, Whitt. G. Cyclops, Wall. _ . G. inelegans, Meek. G. Ohioense, Meek. G. seminodosum, Whitt. CRUSTACEA. DatMANIA, Emmerich. D. Calypso, Wall. D. Helena, Hall.—=D. Ohioense, Meek. D. selenurus, Green. PuHacors, Emmerich. P. rana, Green. PROETUS, Steininger. P. crassimarginatus, Wall. Species from above the Bone-Bed: ORINOIDEA. : GONIASTEROIDOCRINUS, Lyon. G. spinigera, Wall. BRACHIOPODA. _ Lineuta, Brugiere. L. Manni, Hall. L. ligea, Hall. Disctina, Lamarck. D. Lodensis, Hall. D. minuta, Hall. STROPHOMENA, Rafinesque. S. rhomboidalis, Wilck. CHONETES, Fischer. , C. scitula, Hall. C. reversa, Whitt. SPIRIFERA, Sowerby. S. Maia, Billings. 244 New Species of Fossils from Ohio. SS. zic-zac, Hall. LELORHYNCHUs, Hall. L. limitaris, Vanuxem. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. AVICULOPECTEN, McCoy. A. eguilatera, Hall. PreRINEA, Goldfuss. P. similis, Whitt. ACTINODESMA, Sandberger. A. subrecta, Whitt. GRAMMyYsIA, De Vern. G. bisulcata, Conrad. Nyassa, H. and W. INS ongaita., Tal. ands Wi 0 [NOTE TO PAGE 216.] Genus NYASSA, H. and W. Nyassa, H. & W., Prelim. Notice of the Lamellibranchiate Shells of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung Groups, &c. Albany, Dec., 1869, p. 28, Shells bivalve, very oblique and transversely ovate in form. Posterior hinge-plate narrow, bearing from one to four long slender ridge-like teeth. Anterior plate broad, marked by numerous small point-like teeth with in- termediate depressions, arranged somewhat radiating from the middle of its inner border. Adductor muscles two, one at each extremity. Pallial line entire. Ligament internal. Type, . arguta. Name, mythological. Geological range, so far as known, Devonian. Family relations apparently near Megalomus, Hall, and Megalodon, Sowerby. Description of a New Species of Swift. 245 Description of a New Species of Swift of the Genus Chetura, with Notes on two other little-known Birds. BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. Read February 6th, 1882. Chietura Gaumeri, sp. nov. MaAuEe.—Entire crown, hind neck and back of a smoky brownish-black; rump and upper tail-coverts dark ash, each feather narrowly bordered at the end with gray; tail-feathers ashy-brown; lores deep black; ‘‘iris brown ;” throat whitish-gray ; breast and “upper part of abdomen dark smoky ash ; the lower part of the latter and the under tail-coverts are of a darker shade ; wings black, the under wing-coverts and the inner margins of the quills are of a dark ashy-brown ; bill and feet black. Length, about 44 inches ; wing, 44; tail, 141, the spines wanting. Habitat, Yucatan. ‘Type in my collection. Obtained by Mr. Geo. F. Gaumer, in compliment to whom I have named it. Mr. Gaumer spent three years in Yucatan; he made large collections in ornithology and other branches of natural history. A full series of his birds was purchased by the University of Kansas, and it is to be hoped that a catalogue of them will be published. Mr. Gaumer wrote me that he had taken full notes of all the species, which he expected to publish when the names of those sold to the University of Kansas were determined. I purchased the remnant of his collection, in which were the birds now described. 246 Description of a New Species of Swift. In my list of birds from Yucatan (Ann. N. Y. Lyceum, Vol. IX, p. 204), I referred a specimen of swift to C. Vawai, though noticing that it was smaller ; now I find it to agree exactly with the bird above described. This comparison I have been en- abled to make, by Mr. Ridgway’s kindness in lending me the specimen, and sending besides all in the National Museum that are labelled as C. Vauzt. At the time of my examination of the specimen from Yucatan belonging to the Smithsonian, the examples of C. Vawz«i ac- cessible were in poor condition ; but since then, fine specimens of it have been received from California, by the National Museum as well as by myself. A comparison with these shows the Yu- catan bird to be quite distinct. Among those sent me from Washington, is one specimen from Guatemala (Duenas), collected by Mr. Salvin, Feb. 6th, 1860, and labelled by him as C. Vauzi, also one from Mexico (Tehu- antepec), collected by Prof. Sumichrast, which I referred to C. Vauzi (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 4, p. 32). Both area little darker than those from Yucatan, but I consider that they are the same. ‘These two specimens have the spines of the tail- feathers in perfect condition, whereas in the two from Yucatan, the spines are worn off close to the tail-feathers; this abrasion is caused, probably, by their inhabiting rocky cliffs. This species differs from C. Vauai in the much darker color- ing of its upper and under plumage, though in that of the throat they are closely alike; it is a little smaller, and the wings and tail are shorter than in C. Vauai. It has the upper plumage blacker even than that of C. pelasgica, but in that species the under plumage is darker. Notes upon Yucatan Birds. 247 Notes on PYRANGA ROSEIGULARIS, Cabot, and CENTURUS RU- BRIVENTRIS, Swainson. Pyranga roseigularis. For a long time this species has been known only by the type, a male, in the collection of its discoverer, Dr. Cabot, of Boston. The acquisition of both sexes is therefore a fortunate occurrence. Mr. Ridgway has given an accurate description of it (N. Amer. Birds, Vol. I, p. 434) taken from the type. The male I have, differs only in having a decided white superciliary stripe border- ing the red crown. The male measures in length 6% inches; wing, 34; tail, 22; tarsus, #. I give a description of the female, as I think it has not been known heretofore. The female has the upper and under plumage of the same general colors as the male ; the crown and throat are washed with red ; under tail-coverts pale reddish salmon-color ; tail-feathers brown above, edged with light red ; the under surface of the tail is paler in color and tinged with red ; quills dark umber-brown, margined with light greenish yellow; upper wing- coverts of a rather dull olive-green ; under wing-coverts pale yellow ; upper mandible dark brown, the under whitish horn-color ; tarsi and toes dark brown: Length (skin), 64 inches ; wing, 3 ; tail, 23; tarsus, #. Centurus rubriventris. The yalidity of this species seems generally to be questioned, and specimens of it have been but rarely obtained; therefore I was pleased to see another, a female, as it confirmed the opinion expressed by me in my Yucatan list (Ann. N. Y. Lyceum, Vol. IX, p. 206), that I considered it a valid species. Therein I described the male, and pointed out how it differed from C. tri- color, to which species it has been referred. 248 Notes upon Yucatan Birds. A comparison of the female with specimens of the same sex of C. tricolor, shows the differences to be equally as great as those of the males. FEMALE.—The upper plumage, tertiaries and wing-coverts are black, narrowly barred with white; rump and upper tail-coverts white; tail- — feathers black, the ends of the outer ones narrowly margined with white, and the outer edges of the lateral feathers indented with white ; head light brownish-ash, on the crown hoary, front, chin, and sides of the head to a line with the middle of the eye, orange-yellow ; on the hind neck there is a narrow band of vermilion ; under parts brownish ash, with the middle of the abdomen vermilion; flanks barred with black and white; rather dull in color ; under tail coverts gray, marked centrally with black, bill black and narrow ; tarsi and toes black ; “iris black.” Length (skin), 63 inches ; wing, 43; tail, 22; bill, 11-16. Besides differences of marking in the plumage, as shown in the Yucatan list, the bill and feet are much smaller than those of C. tricolor. Of this last species, I have several specimens of both sexes. In Proc. U. 8. Nat. Museum, 1881, p. 93, Mr. Ridgway gives “A Review of the Genus Centurus.” Unfortunately the male specimen, noted in my Yucatan list, could not be found in the Nat. Museum collection ; therefore an expression of his opinion from an autoptical examination was not possible. a". II DES BRS J is OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOLUME 2, 1880—s82. ———\__ #~<@e —_—__ The ‘‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of Natural History, are continued under the above name by the New Yorxk ACADEMY OF SCEFENCES, beginning with the year 1877. It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number to consist of not less than thirty-two pages (octavo’, with or without plates. Price of Yearly Subscription, Two Dollars, payable in advance. The Academy has for sale a number of back volumes of the Annals of the Lyceum, each containing twelve or more numbers ; the price per volume is $4.00 with uncolored plates, or $5.00 with colored plates. The Academy has established a Publication Fund, contributors to which, in the sum of $100 at one time, are entitled to all the Scientific Publications of the Academy appearing subsequently to the payment of their contri- butions. Communications should be addressed to Pror. D. §. MARTIN, Chairman of Publication Committee, 236 West Fourth St. Or to VORINGES EUN TONS Me DE, ; Treasurer, 41 West Thirty-second St. \ [> Any person residing within the United States, on sending the amount of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive the numbers as they appear, without further cost. ? Agents in London, TRUBNER & Oo. > € CONTENTS: XII.—Outlines of the Geology of the North-Eastern West India Islands: By P) 1. Cinyve (with Plate xX Vill) Yo: S222 yee 185 XIII.—Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from Ohio, with Re- marks on some of the Geological Formations in which they occur. By R. P. WHITRIELD,. 2... 6. ce cece se ues ee et XIV.—Description of a New Species of Swift, of the Genus Cheetura, with Notes on two other little-known Birds. By GrorcE N. PARWARIBINC ES 350 4).. Mra Mare dial wares SS eee cleo ae eee 2 oe ee [Pp. 249—256, belonging to No. 8, will appear with the next number. | no J) : May, !882. ANNALS al | NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, | ¥ LATE Dew York: _ PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 1882. GREGORY Bros., Printers, 34 CARMINE STREET, N. Y. * OFFICERS OF THE ue President, a JOHN 8. NEWBERRY. , , Yice-Iresidents. BENJ, N. MARTIN. e Corresponding Secretary. ALBERT BR. LEEDS. f a 7 } | Greasuyer i JOHN H. HINTON, eh Librarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. Gommities of ‘Publication. | DANIEL S. MARTIN. GEO. N. LAWRENCE. Rsteae wg Nes CEE) SW. P. TROWBRIDGE A) SPs The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 249 AXV.—The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. BY LAURENCE JOHNSON. Read January 9th, 1882. That part of New York State which hes between Lake Onta- rio on the north, and Cayuga and Seneca lakes on the south, presents, in its surface geology, some features of exceptional interest. : The surface rocks of this region are, for the most part, deeply covered with drift, which is arranged in a series of parallel hills. Haying been reared among these hills, my attention was early directed to their peculiar character; but, until recently, I had never attempted their systematic study. During the past two or three seasons, however, I have been enabled to renew my acquaintance with the region, and to study it more carefully ; the result of my study and observation I now present as a slight contribution to our knowledge of drift phenomena. Though the surface rocks are generally covered with drift, they are sufficiently exposed in a number of localities to furnish all the data necessary to a correct understanding of their characters and relative positions. The lowest rock found in place in this region is the Medina sandstone. ‘This occupies a narrow belt of territory along the shore of Lake Ontario, probably from one to two or three miles in width. In the vicinity of Big Sodus Bay, and also about Port Bay, it lies at or below the level of Ontario, while it rises toward the east and west, appearing at Oswego Falls, twenty-five miles east, and at the lower falls of the Genesee, fifty miles west, fully one hundred feet higher. I invite particular attention to this fact, for, as will appear later, I believe it to be a significant one. 250 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. Above the Medina sandstone rises the Clinton group, and upon this rests the Niagara, with no well-marked line dividing them. The Clinton is composed of thin-bedded limestoncs, shales, sandstones, and, in some places, thin beds of argillaceous iron ore. Owing to its lithological character, it has not exerted au very powerful influence upon the present topographical fea- tures of the region. Not so, however, is it with the over- lying Niagara. The lower member of this group, here as further west, comprises thin-bedded, impure limestones and about eighty feet of shale; while the upper member is a mass of heavy-bedded, compact lmestone. The geological position of this limestone, dividing as it does the great mass of soft rocks beneath from the still softer Salina shales above, has made it an important agent in the production of the present topography of the region. Kconomically, it is of importance to the inhabit- ants as the source from which they obtain lime. There are no data for determining the exact width of the tract of which the Niagara is the surface rock, since its junetion with the next succeeding group is nowhere apparent ; it is, however, probably from two to five miles wide. Along Wolcott Creek, the best nearly continuous exposure cf the Clinton and Niagara, both together occupy the surface for five or six miles. ike the Medina on which they rest, they rise both east and west. Upon the Niagara rests the Salina group, forming the surface rock all the way to Cayuga and Seneca lakes. The shales of this group are exposed in numerous places, especially along the valley of the Clyde and Seneca rivers, in railway cuttings, and in excavations for the Erie Canal. In two localities in this val- ley, namely, in a railway-cutting two miles west of Savannah, and in a hillside three or four miles southeast of Lyons, I haye observed the upper, water-lime, layers of this group, in place. With the Salina group, ends the succession of surface rocks of the region occupied by the parallel drift-hills. Above and to the south are, however, rocks which have exerted a marked causative influence upon the topography, not only of this region, but of that of the whole Ontario basin. Passing the Water-lime and Oriskany sandstone, with the mere mention of their names, for they are of little importance here, or — The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 2 we come to the Upper Helderberg group. Like the upper mem- ber of the Niagara group, the Upper Helderberg is composed of compact, heavy-bedded limestone, and, like the Niagara, also, it forms the dividing line between much softer rocks—the Sali- na below and the Hamilton shales above. The position which it occupies is delineated on the map with, certainly, an approxi- mation to accuracy. Passing westward from Onondaga Valley, we find it, or should find it, if not concealed by drift, presenting a continuous escarp- ment as far as Cayuga Lake. West of Cayuga it reappears, and continues to Seneca Lake ; and west cf Seneca Lake it is con- tinuous to the Genesee River. We observe, however, that the line of this escarpment is not straight. It bends several miles to the south when approaching Cayuga Lake, turns to the north alike distance after passing Seneca Lake, and then continues on a nearly straight line to the west. At its first exposure on the line running north from Seneca Lake, it presents a steep escarpment facing the east. Above the Upper Helderberg rise the shales of the Ham- ilton group, estimated by Professor Hall to be 1,000 feet thick on Seneca Lake. ‘To these succeed the Tully limestone, Gene- ‘see slate, Portage and Chemung groups, which form the great mountain ridge between the Catskill Mountains and Lake Erie. In the Hamilton shales are excavated the greater part of the rock basins occupied by Skaneateles, Otisco, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca and Canandaigua lakes. The only lake of the series, lying above the horizon of the Hamilton group, is Crooked Lake ; its basin is excavated in the Genesee slate and Portage group. Having thus briefly reviewed the surface rocks of this region, we will now consider the drift which covers them. As already remarked, this is arranged in parallel hills. Though these hills attain their most characteristic development in the region between Cayuga and Seneca lakes on the south, and Lake Ontario on the north, the same peculiar arrangement of the drift is noticeable eastward as far as the Oswego River, and even beyond that point ; westward, it is not particularly noticeable beyond the western boundary of Wayne County. The individual hills vary greatly in length, in breadth, in 252 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. height, and in the angles at which they rise from the intervening valleys; but however much they may differ in these respects, they substantially agree in their general north and south direc- tion. ‘heir deviations from this line are shght. In the western part of Wayne County, and in the northwestern part of Seneca, they bear a few degrees west, and in eastern Wayne and Cayuga, a few degrees east of north. While some of them may be traced two or three miles, attain- ing altitudes of one hundred or two hundred feet above the intervening valleys, the greater number are both shorter and lower. The highest and longest ones are chiefly situated just south of the northern out-crop of the Niagara limestone, though some very high ones are found several miles further south, upon — the Salina. In general, however, the further we recede from the Niagara outcrop, and the nearer we approach Cayuga and Seneca lakes, the lower are the hills. ‘There is no regularity in their positions, for while some groups of them occupy several square miles of territory, with but narrow valleys intervening, in other localities, swampy valleys occur, a mile or more in width and several miles in length. In some instances, hills are literally piled upon hills, so that one great ridge is lined along its sides — by a number of subordinate ridges. Many of them were origi-- nally very difficult to cultivate, on account of their steep declivi- ties, but this feature is far less noticeable now than it was twenty-five years ago, for frequent plowing, and the washing of rains and melting snow, have wrought great changes in them since the forests were removed. ‘This remark apples particu- larly to the northern hills; but those situated further south— several miles from the Niagara out-crop—have not improved in the same ratio; the reason of which will be apparent when we consider their composition. Again, when hills have steep de- clivities, these are, with very few exceptions, upon their east or west sides or at their north ends; they almost uniformly slope to the south gradually. The exceptions occur in hills which have undergone changes since the material of which they are formed was first deposited. As already foreshadowed, the irregularity of the hills has its parallel in that of the valleys. The smaller ones are shallow depressions between low ridges which serve the purposes of drain- i i a 5 i i a eS ——- ; — The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 253 age. ‘These, of course, are parallel with the including ridges. The larger valleys are generally cup-shaped depressions in the drift, especially those south of the Niagara out-crop, through which the minor streams flow with a sluggish current. Many of these have an area of several square miles, and, at no very distant day, have heen the basins of shallow lakes. = ))3 ima most of this territory exhibits a southwesterly course of glacia- tion a a8 * well shown over the highlands between Hudson’s Bay and the St. Lawrence Valley, the valley itsclf, western New York” ete.; ‘“‘whilein castern New York and the Champlain and Hudson Valleys, the course is southerly.” Professor Newberry, in an article on the Surface Geology of - Ohio, presents a very interesting and satisfactory general sum- mary of the glacial phenomena throughout the whole lake re- gion. He believes that the period opened with the formation of local glaciers on the Laurentian Mountains, which crept down and began the excavation of the present lake basins in what was then the valley of a river which drained this portion of the continent, flowing through the present Mohawk Valley. That, as the cold increased, these local glaciers partially coalesced, forming a many-lobed ice-sheet, which moved rad-atingly from Py SS ee The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. — 259 the southern, southwestern and western slopes of the Canadian highlands. 'To quote his own words: ‘‘ The effect of this glacier upon Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, would be to broaden their basins by impinging against and grinding away, with incon- _ceivable power, their southern margins. To the action of this agent we must ascribe the peculiar outline of the profile sections drawn from the Laurentian hills across the basin of Lake On- tario to the Alleghanies, and across Lake Erie to the highlands of Ohio, viz., a long, gradual slope from the north to the bottom of the depression, and then an abrupt ascent over the massive and immovable obstacle against which the ice was banked, until by a vis a tergo, it overtopped the barrier. In New York, that barrier was a shoulder of the Alleghanies, too high and too rugged to be buried under a continuous ice-sheet ; but its whole front was worn away for a hundred miles or more, and it was deeply creased where we now see the peculiarly elongated lakes of New York, and cut through, in certain gaps, to the valley of the Delaware. In Ohio,'the erosion was easicr, and carried fur- ther south. ‘The barrier was also lower, and was finally over- topped by one great lobe of ice, which flowed on to the south and west until its edge reached the Ohio River. : ce 3 With the amelioration of the climate, the wide-spread ice- sheets of, the period of intense cold became again local glaciers, which completed the already begun work of cutting out the lake basins. At first, the glacier which had before flowed over the water-shed in Ohio, was so far reduced as to be unable to overtop its summit, but deflected by it, it flowed along its base, spending its energies in cutting the shallow basin in which Lake Erie now lies. ‘‘A further elevation of temperature curtailed the glacier still more, and Lake Erie became a water-basin, while local glaciers, left from the ice-sheet, excavated the basins of Lake Michigan, Lake Huron and Lake Ontario. The latter lake was apparently formed by the same glacier that made the Erie basin, but when much abbreviated. It flowed from the Laurentian hills and the north slope of the Adirondacks, and was deflected by the high- lands south of the lake-basin, so that its motion was nearly westward.” * * Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol II, p. 78. 260 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. Though this summary is in general very satisfactory, the last statement, namely, that the local glacier which finished the excavation of the Ontario basin ‘‘ was deflected by the highlands south of the lake-basin, so that its motion was nearly westward,” if applied to the region which we are considering, would seem to require modification. 'The direction of these drift-ridges, to- gether with their steep northern declivities, render it evident that the glacier which deposited them came from and retired to the north. Professor Newberry’s remark might, however, be applied without change to the western portion of the Ontario basin, for in that locality there are no drift-ridges, showing a different direction of the ice-flow, while the course of the glacial striae upon exposed rock-surfaces supports the view. These latter, unfortunately, are not accessible to any great ex- tent in the region occupied by the drift-hills. I regret that I cannot offer their evidence in corroboration of that afforded by the hills. We have, however, what I conceive to be much more important testimony—the direction of the long axes of the chain of small lakes south of the hills. A glance at any map of New York will readily show that lines drawn through the long axes of Canandaigua, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco and Skaneateles lakes, converge toward a point on the Canadian shore of Ontario. That these lake-basins were excavated by glacial action, seems almost self-evident, and is, indeed, almost universally admitted. Their radiated arrangement, in my opinion, admits of but one explanation, namely, that they were cut by one and the same great glacier, whose margin was broken into several streams in crossing the mountain ridge, and that this glacier flowed in a general southerly direction from the Canadian highlands. Fur- thermore, the maximum of its force was exerted along its cen- tral line, in the vicinity of Seneca and Cayuga lakes. Opposite these lakes the shore of Ontario is deeply indented by a number of bays, notably by Big Sodus. That the glacier occupied this region for an immensely long period of time, is evident from the great depth of the rock-basins of Cayuga and Seneca,—the for- mer having now a depth of more than four hundred, and the latter of more than six hundred feet. As stated. above, Cayuga formerly extended a dozen miles or more further north than now. Its buried basin has been sounded at Montezuma, in The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 261 borings for brine, and in driving piles for the canal aqueduct, to the depth of a hundred feet or more. Our estimate of the extent of glacial erosion in the vicinity of these lakes is, how- ever, scarcely begun when we have sounded their depths, for more than a thousand feet of rock were removed before the present level of their waters was reached. Attention has already been invited to the fact, that the Upper Helderberg escarpment bends several miles south in approach- ing Cayuga and Seneca lakes, and also to the indentation of the Ontario shore opposite the locality. Now this indentation of the Ontario shore is where the Medina sandstone is found at its lowest level. ‘Taking these facts, together with that of the maximum of glacial erosion being found along the line where the exposed rocks are seen at their lowest levels, have we not an indication of the causes which influenced the ice-flow in this region ? Glaciers, like water, at first follow the lines of lowest level. In the original topography of this region, previous to the ice period, there was a valley here—not a deep one, it is true, but deep enough to influence an ice-current. Evidence that this valley was not confined to the immediate shore of Ontario, is not wanting. Several miles south of Geneva, the outlet of Crooked Lake, in its easterly course to Seneca Lake, exhibits a fine section of the Portage group, Genesee slate, and Hamilton shales, all dipping to the east at a comparatively high angle. I think we may safely assume that the pre-glacial drainage of this valley contributed not a little to fit it for the great ice- current which was to come. Indeed, it is generally conceded by geologists that the ancient excavation in which lies Onondaga Lake, is probably a buried pre-glacial river-channe:; and some even suppose that this river drained Lake Ontario in a south- easterly direction—a supposition which is highly improbable. It is much more reasonable to assume that the pre-glacial drain- age of this region was not far different from its present; and that the channel of the river where now lies Onondaga Lake, was not ouly deepened, but subsequently filled up by the glacial action, even as appears to have been the case with the north end of Cayuga Lake, to which allusion has already been made. However this may be, it appears evident that when the ice 262 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. came, it moved up the shallow valley, described above, radiating to the east and west as it proceeded; and in the valley it remain- ed until its final retreat to the north. Under this ice were formed the parallel hills, in a manner which, so far as I know, has only been explained by Geikie, and — in the following words: ‘‘In narrow and deep hollows, like the upland valleys, the ice was not liable to such deflections as took place over the ‘debatable’ grounds, and the till forming below it consequently escaped being squeezed to and fro; the valleys were filled with streams of ice flowing constantly in one and the same direction, and the probabilities are therefore strong that the débris which accumulated below would be spread out smoothly. “In the lowlands the effect produced by the varying direction and unequal pressure of the ice-sheet is visible in the peculiar outline assumed by the till. Sometimes it forms a confused aggregate of softly-swelling mounds and hummocks; in other places it gives rise to a series of long smoothly-rounded banks or ‘drums’ and ‘sow-backs,’ which run parallel to the direction taken by the ice. ‘This peculiar configuration of the till, although doubtless modified to some extent by rain and streams, yet was no doubt assumed under the ice-sheet,—the ‘sow-backs’ being the glacial counterparts of those broad banks of silt and sand that form here and there upon the beds of rivers. ‘“Perhaps the most admirable example in Scotland of this pe- culiar arrangement or configuration of the till occurs in the valley of the Tweed, between the Cheviot Hills and the Lammer- muirs. In this wide district, all the ridges of till run parallel to each other, and in a direction approximately east and west. This, too, is the prevailing trend of the rock-striations and roches moutonnées in the same neighborhood.” * If our theory be correct, the region which we are considering must, indeed, have been ‘‘debatable,” no less than some of the localities mentioned by Geikie, for it must have been the north and south line whence the ice was deflected both eastward and westward, and fluctuations of lateral pressure must have been both numerous and striking. Add to this the change of form assumed by the ice in passing from the broad basin of Ontario — * The Great Ice Age, by James Geikie, F. R. S. E., etc., p. 88. N. Y., 1874. a Se ee eS ae ee ee ee The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. — 263 into the basins of the Cayuga and Seneca, where it swept betwecn sloping walls of rock nearly 2000 feet in height, and we need not be surprised to find the drift in its present position and shape. A curious and interesting effect of this change of form in the ice as it approached Cayuga and Seneca, is shown in the direc- tion of the drift-hills in the northwestern part of Seneca County, viz. several degrees west of north, as if the lower part of the glacier which fashioned them had been forced by lateral pressure toward the lake valleys. It remains to consider the question of how these hills escaped the changes, so commonly incident to the drift, during the melt- ing of the glaciers. As the ice had crept slowly down to the line which now marks its ancient termination, so did it slowly retire at the close of the glacial epoch. During its retreat from Pennsylvania to the highlands of New York, the water from its melting edge flowed freely away, and often sorted the drift materials, depositing them not unfrequently in a more or less stratified condition. When, however, the highlands were passed, the conditions changed, and a lake was formed whose southern shore was the mountain ridge, while its northern boundary was a wall of ice. Eyidences of the southern shore-line are still apparent in certain ill-defined beaches, which were described by Professor Hall forty years ago, when they were much better marked than now; and its northwestern boundary is outlined by beaches in the vicinity of Toronto, several hundred feet above the present level of Ontario. This lake undoubtedly discharged its waters southward through the valleys in which he the small lakes of the mountain ridge. During this period, the parallel drift-hills were in deep water, and hence beyond the reach of denuding agencies, though they doubtless received the débris of melting icebergs, particularly the large boulders of crystalline rocks which here and there dot the surface, but are not present in the boulder clay. As the melting progressed still further, the Mohawk Valley was probably opened, and the water sank below the line of the lowest pass of the highlands to the south—that of Seneca Lake, whose summit is now about nine hundred feet above sea-level. That the St. Lawrence valley was still closed with ice, is ren- 264 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New Y ork. dered probable by the evidence we have that Lake Ontario stood for a long time at a point two hundred feet above its present level. ‘This evidence is afforded by the old lake ridge, which, beginning near Big Sodus Bay, extends westward to and beyond the Niagara River, at a distance of from three to five miles from the lake. Its height, about two hundred feet above Ontario, is several feet above the summit level of the Mohawk Valley, while this latter has evidently been considerably silted up since Onta- rio ceased to discharge its waters in this direction. Moreover, that there was ice not far distant, while this lake ridge was be- ing formed, is proved by the absence of fossils from the ridge itself, and from the heavy beds of clay deposited during the same period. Professor Hall did, indeed, report from hearsay evi- dence, the finding of shells in the ridge, but Iam not aware that the report has been verified. ‘The clays are, 1 am sure, barren of fossils. ; The eastern terminus of the ridge is peculiarly interesting. As shown by the map, near Big Sodus Bay it turns to the south- east. It may be traced in this direction for two or three miles, and is then lost in the cultivated fields. Why is this ? As has been shown, the surface rocks of this region rise to the west of Sodus. Now, west of this point, the lake ridge is at about the level of the valleys in the drift, while east- ward the yalleys are deeper, and hence a continuous beach was impossible. ‘he waters of the lake did, however, work great havoc with many of the larger hills, evidence of which fact is still apparent in the beds of sand and rounded pebbles about them, and of clay in the valleys. Naturally, such evidence is found near the present lake shore, since the first ranges of hills would break the force of the waves; and in a measure protect those further south. Again, the ranges of hills still further south, facing Cayuga and Seneca lakes, suffered denudation in the same manner and at the same times, though of course to a much less-marked extent. The beds of sand between Lyons and Geneva, and at numerous other points along the valley of the Clyde and Seneca rivers, were undoubtedly deposited at this period by wave-action. There was thus a belt between Ontario -and Cayuga and Seneca lakes protected against wave-action ; here we find the hills nearly as they were left by the glacier, and ee ee —— A J y f 4 : ee a a eT Teas 2seo hme : 7 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 265 as they have been described in this paper; and here, though there are some unimportant beds of clay, there are no beach sands. The elevations above Ontario of a few localities, will enable us to form an idea of the general appearance of the region in- those ancient times. The signal-station of the New York State Survey, two miles south of Clyde, is upon a hill 388 feet above Ontario; that at Victory, seventeen miles distant, 323 feet, and the one at Gil- bertsville, seventeen miles further east, 276 feet; the Clyde River at Clyde, 145 feet. Hence, when Ontario stood at the level of the old ridge, there were more than 50 feet of water in the Clyde, while the hills upon which stand the signal stations were islands from 75 to 200 feet above the lake. True, these hills are among the highest of the region, but there are scores of others nearly or quite as high, while all of the larger valleys are but little above that of the Clyde River. ‘The one running north from Clyde village was many years ago surveyed for a canal, to connect the Erie with Big Sodus, but which failed of completion from financial, not engineering, difficulties. The yalley.stretching north from the Montezuma marshes to Wolcott was also surveyed, with a view to ascertaining the practicability of draining the marshes in this direction, and it was shown that a cutting of eighteen feet would effect the object. Seneca Lake is 207 feet above Ontario; Cayuga, 131 feet ; Onondaga, 118 feet ; and the summit-level of the Erie Canal in the Mohawk Valley, 182 feet. The following are elevations along the line of the Ontario shore railroait: Hannibal, 93 feet ; Sterling, 72 feet; Red Creek, 87 feet ; Wolcott, 112 feet; Rose, 141 feet; Alton, 154 feet; Wallington, 160 feet; Sodus (near the lake ridge), 182 feet; and Ontario, 169 feet. Along the immediate shore of the lake west of Big Sodus Bay, the elevation is not greater than 60 feet, while east of this point, a number of hills attain the altitude of 120 feet (Charts of the U. 8. Lake Survey). These figures, meagre as they are, present to the mind a gra- phie picture of this region when the waters of Ontario were raising the ancient beach. Every prominent hill of to-day was then an island, and every considerable valley a deep channel, 266 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. through which the waters circulated slowly toward the gate whence they were discharged from the lake-basin. ‘The gate, we assume, for reasons already stated, to have been the Mohawk Valley. During this period the ice was still retreating; and finally the St. Lawrence valley was opened. ‘The waters then sank be- low the summit-level of the Mohawk, and have since flowed in their present channel. This last change must have occurred with comparative ra- pidity, for the waters of Ontario sank so rapidly as to have formed no beach between the old Lake Ridge and its present level. Now, had this change been due, as is believed by many, to an elevation of the land, we might reasonably expect to find some intermediary beaches. That an elevation of Jand was in progress is not doubted; but that an elevation, continental in extent, should have occurred with such rapidity as to have pro- duced the effects ascribed to it in the lake region, seems at least problematical ; while the giving way of an ice-dam in the upper St. Lawrence valley presents no such difficulties. During the progress of this final recession of the waters of Ontario, the drift in the region of the parallel hills suffered con- siderable erosion, evidences of which are found in the river valleys, and in the gorges of the small streams leading into the bays along the lake shore. Naturally, the valley of the Oswego River exhibits the best evidences attainable of the erosion of. this period. Here are found heavy beds of sand and gravel, far above the present channel, to mark the rush of those ancient waters. NOTE. In the compilation of the accompanying map, the writer has to acknowl- edge his indebtedness to the charts of the U. §. Lake Survey, the prelimin- ary maps of the New York State Survey, the Geological Survey of New York, the Geological Railway Guide, by James MacFarlane, Ph. D.; Mr. O. 8. Wilson, Assistant in Charge, N. Y. State Survey; and Mr, E. A. Doane, Chief Engineer, R., W., & O. R. R. His thanks are also due to Prof. R. P. Whitfield, Curator of the Geo- logical Department of the American Museum of Natural History, for the determination of fossils, and for much other valuable assistance. The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 267 XVI.—The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. BY J. S. NEWBERRY. Read February 6th, 1882. What are called the carbon minerals,—peat, lignite, coal, gra- phite, asphalt, petroleum, etc.,—are, properly speaking, not minerals at all, as they are organic substances, and have no definite chemical composition or crystalline forms. They ure, in fact, chiefly the products or phases of a progressive and inevitable change in plant-tissue, which, like all organic matter, is an unstable compound and destined to decomposition. In virtue of a mysterious and inscrutable force which resides in the microscopic embryo of the seed, a tree begins its growth. For a brief interval, this growth is maintained by the prepared. food stored in the cotyledons, and this suffices to produce and to bring into functional activity some root-fibrils below and leaves above, with which the independent and self-sustained life of the individual begins. Henceforward, perhaps for a thousand years, this life goes on, active in summer and dormant in winter, ab- sorbing the sunlight as a motive power, which it controls and guides Its instruments are the discriminating cells at the ex- tremities of the root-fibrils, which search for, select and absorb the ernde aliment adapted to the needs of the plant to which they belong, and the chlorophyll cells—the lungs and stomach of the tree—in the leaves. During all the years of the growth of the plant, these organs are mainly occupied in breaking the strongly rivetted bonds that unite oxygen and carbon in car- bonic acid ; appropriating the carbon and drawing off most of the oxygen. In the end, ifthe tree is, ¢. g., a Sequoia, some hun- dreds of tons of solid organized tissue have been raised into a 268 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. column hundreds of feet in height, in opposition to the force of gravitation, and to the affinities of inorganic chemistry. The time comes, however, sooner or later, when the power which has created and the life that has pervaded this wonderful structure, abandon it. The affinities of inorganic chemistry immediately reassert themselves; in ordinary circumstances rapidly tearing down the ephemeral fabric. The disintegration of organic tissue, when deserted by the force which has animated and preserved it, gives rise to the phenomena which form the theme of this paper. Most animal tissue decomposes with great rapidity, and plant- tissue, when not protected, soon decays. This decay is essen- tially oxidation, since its final result is the restoration to the atmosphere of carbonic acid, which is broken up in plant-growth by the appropriation of its carbon. Hence it is a kind of com- bustion, although this term is more generally applied to very rapid oxidation with the evolution of sensible light and heat. But whether the process goes on rapidly or slowly, the same force is evolved that is absorbed in the growth of plant-tissue ; and by accelerating and guiding its evolution, we are able to utilize this force in the production at will of heat, ight, and their correlatives, chemical affinity, motive power, electricity and magnetism. The decomposition of plants may, however, be more or less retarded, and it then takes the form of a de-— structive distillation; the constituents reacting upon each other, and forming “ecupeveny combinations, part of Palen are evolved, and part remain behind. Water is the great extinguisher of this as of the more rapid oxidation that we call combustion ; and the decomposition of plant-tissue under water is extremely slow, from the partial exclusion of oxygen. Buried under thick and nearly impervious masses of clay, where the exclusion of oxygen is still more nearly complete, the decomposition is so far retarded that plant-tissue, which is destroyed by combustion almost instantaneously, and if exposed to ‘‘the elements,”— moisture with a free access of oxygen,—decays in a year or two, may be but partially consumed when millions of years have passed. The final result is, however, inevitable, and always the same, viz., the oxidation and escape of the organic matter, and the concentration of the inorganic matter woven into its com- 2 4 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 269 position,—in it, but not of it,—forming what we call the ash of the plant. Since the decomposition of organic matter commences the instant it is abandoned by the creative and conservative vital force, and proceeds uninterruptedly, whether slowly or rapidly, to the final result, it is evident that each moment in the progress of this decomposition presents us with a phase of structure and composition different from that which preceded and from that which follows.it. Hence the succession of these phases forms a complete sliding scale, which is graphically shown in the follow- ing diagram, where the organic constituents of plant-tissue— carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen—appear gradually di- minishing to extinction, while the ash remains nearly constant, but relatively increasing, till it is the sole representative of the fabric. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE GENETIC RELATIONS OF THE CARBON MINERALS. EVOLVED PRODUCTS Oxygen Corbonic Acid Carb. Oxide Carb. Hydrogen Petroleum i ® Water Weod Graphité (eS 7 | RESIDUAL PRODUCTS We may cut this triangle of residual products where we please, and by careful analysis detcrmine accurately the chemical com- position of a section at this point, and we may please ourselves with the illusion, as many chemists have done, that the definite proportions found represent the formula of a specific compound; but an adjacent section above or below would show a different composition, and so in the entire triangle we should find an in- finite series of formule, or rather no constant formule at all. We should also find that the slice, taken at any point while lying in the laboratory or undergoing chemical treatment, would change in composition, and become a different substance. In the same way we can snatch a brand from the fire at any stage of its decomposition, or analyze a decaying tree- trunk during any month of its existence, and thus manufacture 270 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. as many chemical formule as we like, and give them specific names ; but it is evident that this is child’s play, not science. The truth is, the slowly decomposing tissue of the plants of past — ages has given us a series of phases which we have grouped un- der distinct names, and we have called one group peat, one lignite, another coal, another anthracite, and another graphite. We have spaced off the scale, and called all within certain lines by acommon name; but this does not give us a common com- position for all the material within these lines. Hence we see that any effort to define or describe coal, lignite or anthracite, accurately, must be a failure, because neither has a fixed com- position, neither is a distinct substance, but simply a conven- tional group of substances which form part of an infinite and indivisible series. But this sliding scale of solid compounds, which we designate by the names given above, is not the only product of the natural and spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue. Part of the origi- nal organic mass remains, though constantly wasting, to repre- sent it; another part escapes, either completely oxidized as car- bonic acid and water, or in a volatile or liquid form, still retaining its organic character, and destined to future oxidation, known as carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, petroleum, ete. Hence, in the decomposition of vegetable tissue, two classes of resultant compounds are formed, one residual and the other evolved; and the genesis and relation of the carbon minerals may be accurately shown by the following diagram. PLANT-TISSUE. RESIDUAL PRODUCTS. | EVOLVED PRODUCTS. Peat. | Lignite. ( Carbonic Acid. | Carbonic Oxide, Carburetted Hydrogen, etc. Bituminous Coal. Semi-bituminous Coal. W ater. | Anthracite. | | a | Asphalt, ete. \ Petroleum. 4 | Asphaltic Coal. | Graphitic Anthracite. | Graphite. SS . heaps . a | Asphaltic Anthracite. ( : 3 i 7 } | i The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 271 [Nore.—In this diagram, the vertical line connecting the names of the residual products (and of the derivatives of petro- leum) indicates that each succeeding one is produced by further alteration from that which precedes it, and not independently. Also, the arrangement of the braces is designed to show that any or all of the evolved products are given off at each stage of alteration. | The theory here proposed has not been evolved from my in- ner consciousness, but has grown from careful study, through many years, of facts in the field. A brief sketch of the evidence in favor of it is all that we have space for here. RESIDUAL PRODUCTs. Peat.—Dry plant-tissue consists of about 50 per cent. of car- bon, 44 per cent. of oxygen, with a little nitrogen, and 6 per cent. of hydrogen. Ina peat-bog, we find the upper part of the scale represented above very well shown ; plants are growing on the surface with the normal composition of cellulose. The first stratum of peat consists of browned and partially decom- posed plant-tissue, which is found to have lost perhaps 20 per cent. of the components of wood, and to have acquired an in- creasing percentage of carbon. As we descend in the peat, it becomes more homogeneous and darker, until at the bottom of the marsh, ten or twenty feet from the surface, we have a black © carbonaceous paste which, when dried, resembles some varieties of coal, and approaches them in composition. It has lost half the substance of the original plant, and shows a marked increase in the relative proportion of carbon. Lignite.—EKach inch in vertical thickness of the peat-bog re- presents a phase in the progressive change from wood-tissue to henite, using this term with its common signification, to indi- cate, not necessarily carbonized ligneous tissue, but plant-tissue that belongs to a past though modern geological age ; 7. e., Ter- tiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, or Triassic. These lgnites or mod- ern coals are only peat-beds which have been buried for a longer or shorter time under clay, sand or solidified rock, and have pro- gressed farther or less far on the road to coal. As with peats, so 272 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. with lignites, we find that at different geological levels they ex- hibit different stages of this distillation—the Tertiary lignites being usually distinguished without difficulty by the presence of a larger quantity of combined water and oxygen, and a less quantity of carbon, than the Cretaceous coals, and these in turn differ in the same respects from the Triassic. All the coais of the Tertiary and Mesozoic ages are grouped under one name; but it is evident that they are as different from each other as the new and spongy from the old and well-rotted peat in the peat-bog. Coal.—By mere convention, we call the peat which accumn- lated in the Carboniferous age by the name of bituminous coal ; and an examination of the Carboniferous strata in different countries has shown that the peat-beds formed in the Carboni- — ferous age, though varying somewhat, like others, with the kind of vegetation from which they were derived, have a common character by which they may be distinguished from the more modern coals ; containing less water, less oxygen, and more car- bon, and usually exhibiting the property of coking, which is rare in coals of later date. Though there is great diversity in the Carboniferous coals, and it would be absurd to express their composition by a single formula, it may be said that, over the whole world, these coals have characteristics, as a group, by which they can be recognized, the result of the slow decomposi- tion of the tissue of plants which lived in the Carboniferous age, and which have, by a broad and general change approximated to a certain phase in the spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue. An experienced geologist will not fail to refer to their proper horizon a group of coals of Carboniferous age, any more than those of the Cretaceous or Tertiary. Anthracite.—In the ages anterior to the Carboniferous, the quantity of land vegetation was apparently not sufficient to form thick and extensive beds of peat; but the remains of plant-tissue are contained in all the older formations, though there only as anthracite or graphite—the last two groups of residual products. Of these we have examples in the beds of graphite in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, and of anthracite of the Lower Silurian strata of Upper Church and Kilnaleck, Ireland. * a ee ee ee oa oS a ae The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. — 273 From these facts it is apparent that the carbon series is graded geologically, that is, by the lapse of time during which plant-tissue has been subjected to this natural and spontaneous distillation. But we have better evidence than this, of the deri- vation of one from another of the groups of residual products which have been enumerated. In many localities, the coals and lignites of different ages have been exposed to local influences— such as the outbursts of trap-rock, or the metamorphism of mountain chains,—which have hastened the distillation, and out of known earlier groups have produced the last. For example, trap outbursts have converted Tertiary ignites in Alaska into good bituminous coals ; on Queen Charlotte’s Island, on Anthra- cite Creek, in southwestern Colorado, and at the Placer Moun- tams near Santa Fé, New Mexico, Cretaceous lignites into anthracite; those from Queen Charlotte’s Island and sounth- western Colorado, are as bright, hard and valuable as any from Pennsylvania. At a little distance from the focus of volcanic action, the Cretaceous coals of southwestern Colorado have been made bituminous and coking, while at the Placer Moun- tains the same stratum may be seen in its anthracitic and lignitic stages. A still better series, illustrating the derivation of one form of carbon solids from another, is furnished by the coals of Ohio, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. ‘These are of the same age; in Ohio, presenting the normal composition and physical char- acters of bituminous coals, that is, of plant-tissue generally, and uniformly descending the scale in the lapse of time from the Carboniferous age to the present. In the mountains of Penn- sylyania the same coal-beds, somewhat affected by the metamor- phism which all the rocks of the Alleghanies have shared, have reached the stage of semi-bituminous coals, where half the volatile constituents have been driven off; again, in the anthra- cite basins of eastern Pennsylvania, the distillation further _ effected has formed from these coals anthracite, containing only from three to ten per cent. of volatile matter; while in the focus of metamorphic action, at Newport, Rhode Island, the Carboniferous coals have been changed to graphitic anthracite, that is, are half anthracite and half graphite. Here, traveling from west to east, a progressive change is noted, similar to that 274 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. which may be observed in making a vertical section of a peat- bog, or in comparing the coals of Tertiary, Mesozoic and Car- boniferous age, only the latter is the continuation pon natural sequence of the former series of changes. In the Laurentian rocks of Canada are large accumulations of carbonaceous matter, all of which is graphite, and that which is universally conceded to be derived from: plant-tissue. The oxidation of graphite is artificially difficult, and in. nature’s la- boratory slow ; but it is inevitable, as we see in the decomposi- tion of its outcrops and the blanching of exposed surfaces of clouded marbles, where the coloring is graphite. Thus the end is reached, and by observations in the field, the origin and re- lationship of the different carbon solids derived from organic tissue are demonstrated. It only remains to be said, in regard to them, that all the changes enumerated may be imitated artificially, and that the stages of decomposition which we have designated by the names — graphite, anthracite, coal, lignite, are not necessary results of the decomposition of plant-tissue. A fallen tree may slowly consume away, and all its carbonaceous matter be oxidized and dissipated without exhibiting the phases of lgnite, coal, ete. ; and lignite and coal, when exposed to air and moisture, are burned away to ashes in the same manner, simply because in these cases complete oxidation of the carbon takes place, particle by particle, and the mass is not affected as a whole in such a way as to assume the intermediate stages referred to. Chemical analysis, however, proves that the process is essentially the same, although the physical results are different. EVOLVED Propuwucts. The gradual wasting of plant-tissue in the formation of peat, lignite, coal, etc., may be estimated as averaging for peat 20 to 30 per cent. ; lignite, 30 to 50 per cent. ; coal, 50 to 70 per cent. ; ee ete 70 to 80; and graphite, 90 per cent. of the original mass. ‘The evolved products ultimately represent the entire organic portion of the wood—the mineral matter, or ash, being the only residuum. ‘These evolved products include both liquids and gases, and by subsequent changes, solids are pro- eg a = Se ie ee (ae (ee es t SL a ee ee. | ean rad ‘ The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. — 2%5 duced from some of them. Carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, nitrogenous and hydro-cirbon gases, water and petroleum, are mentioned above as the substances which escape from wood- tissue during its decomposition. That all these are eliminated in the decay of vegetable and animal structures, is now generally conceded by chemists and geologists, although there is a wide difference of opinion as to the nature of the process. It has been claimed that the evolved products enumerated above are the results of the primary decomposition of organic matter, and never of further changes in the residual products ; 7. e., that in the breaking-up of organic tissue, variable quanti- ties of coal, anthracite, petroleum, marsh-gas, etc., are formed, but that these are never derived the one from the other. This opinion is, however, certainly erroneous, and the formation of any or all the evolved products may take place throughont the entire progress of the decomposition. Muarsh-gas and carbonic acid are seen escaping from the surface of pools where recent vegetable matter is submerged, and they are also elimi- nated in the further decomposition of peat, lignite, coal and carbonaceous shale. Fire-damp and choke-damp, common names for the guses mentioned above, are produced in large quantitics in the mines where Tertiary or Cretaceous lignites, or Carboni- ferous coals or anthracites are mined. It has been said that these gases are simply locked up in the interstices of the carbon- aceous matter, and are liberated in its excavation ; but ali who have worked coal-mines know that such accumulations are not sufficient to supply the enormous and continuous flow which comes from all parts of tie mass penetrated. We have ample proof, moreover, that coal, when exposed to the air, undergoes a kind of distillation, in which the evolution of carbonic acid and hydro-carbon gases is a necessary and prominent feature. The gas-makers know, that if their coul is permitted to he for months or years after being mined, it suffers serious deteriora- tion, yielding aless and less quantity of illuminating gas with the lapse of time. So coking coals are rendered dry, non- caking, and valueless for this purpose, by long exposure. Carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, etc., are constant associ- ates of the petroleum of springs or wells, and this escape of gas and oil has been going on in some localities, without apparent 276 =The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. diminution, for two or three thousand years. We can only ac- count for the persistence of this flow by supposing that it is maintained by the gradual distillation of the carbonaceous masses with which such evolutions of gas or of liquid hydro- carbons are always connected. If it were true that carburetted hydrogen and petroleum are produced only from the primary decomposition of organic tissue, it would be inevitable that at least the elastic gases would have escaped long since. Oil-wells which have been nominally exhausted—that is, from which the accumulations of centuries in rock reservoirs have been pumped—and therefore have been abandoned, have in all cases been found to be slowly replenished by a current and constant secretion, apparently the product of an unceasing distillation. In the valley of the Cumberland, about Burkesville, one of the oil-regions of the country, the gases escaping from the equivalent of the Utica shale accumulate under the plates of impervious limestone above, until masses of rock and earth, hundreds of tons in weight, are sometimes thrown out with great violence. Unless these gases had been produced by compara- tively recent distillation, such explosions could not occur. In opening a coal-mine on a hillside, the first traces of the coal-seam are found in a dark stain in the superficial clay; then a substance like rotten wood is reached, from which all the vola- tile constituents have escaped. These appear, however, later, and continue to increase as the mine is deepened, until under water or a heavy covering of rock, the coal attains its normal © physical and chemical characters. Here it is evident that the coal has undergone a long-continued distillation, which must have resulted in the constant production of carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen. A line of perennial oil and gas springs marks the outcrop of every great stratum of carbonaceous matter in the country. Of these, the most considerable and remarkable are the bituminous shales of the Silurian (Utica shale), of the Devonian (Hamilton and Huron shales), the Carboniferous, etc. Here the carbona- ceous constituent (10 to 20 per cent.) is disseminated through a great proportion of inorganic material, clay and sand, and seems both from the nature of the materials which furnished it,—cellular plants and minute animal organisms,—and its dis- ae —— The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 277% semination, to be specially prone to spontaneous distillation. The Utica shale is the lowest of these great sheets of carbonaceous matter, and that supplies the hydro-carbon gases awd liquids which issue from the earth at Collingwood, Canada, and in the rulley of the Cumberland. ‘The next carbonaceous sheet is _ formed by the great bituminous shale-beds of the Upper Devo- nian, which underlie and supply the oil-wells in western Penn- sylvania. In some places the shale is several hundred feet in thickness, and contains more carbonaceous matter than all the overlying coal strata. The outcrop of this formation, from central New York to Tennessee, is conspicuously marked by gas-springs, the flow from which is apparently unfailing. Petroleum is scarcely less constant in its connection with these carbonaceons rocks than carburetted hydrogen, and it only escapes notice from the little space it occupies. The two sub- stances are so closely allied that they must have a common origin, and they are in fact generated simultaneously in thousands of localities. ‘ During the oil excitement of some years since, when the whole country was hunted over for ‘‘oil-sign,” in many lagoons, from which bubbles of marsh-gas were constantly escaping, films of genuine petroleum were often found on the surface ; and as the underlying strata were barren of oil, this could only have been derived from the decaying vegetable tissue below. In the Bay of Marquette, two or three miles north of the town, where the shore is a peat-bog underlain by Archean rocks, I have seen bubbles of carburetted hydrogen rising in great numbers, attended by drops of petroleum, which spread as iridescent films on the surface. The remarks which have been made in regard to the hetero- genous nature of the solid hydro-carbons, apply with scarcely less force to the gaseous and hquid products of vegetable de- composition. The gases which escape from marshes contain carbonic acid, a number of hydro-carbon gases (or the materials out of which they may be composed in the process of analysis), and finally a larger or smaller volume of nitrogenous gas. It is possible that the elimination of these gases takes the form of fractional distillation, and definite compounds may be formed directly from the wood-tissue or its derivatives, and mingle as 278 = =The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. they escape. This is, however, not certain, for the gases, as we find them, are always mixtures and never pure. In the liquid evolved products, the petroleums, this is emphatically true, for we combine under this name fluids which vary greatly in both their physical and chemical characters; some are light and ethereal; others are thick and tarry; some are transparent, some opaque; some red, some brown, others green; some have an offensive and others an agreeable odor; some contain asphalt in large quantity, others paraffine, etc. Thus they form a heterogeneous assemblage of liquid hydro-carbons, of which naph- tha and maltha may be said to form the extremes, and which have little in common, except their undetinable name. ‘The causes of these differences are but imperfectly understood, but we know that they are in part dependent on the nature of the organic material that has furnished the petroleums, and in part upon influences affecting them after their formation. For ex- ample, the oil which saturates the Niagara limestone at Chicago, and which is undoubtedly indigenous in this rock, and probably of animal origin, is black and thick; that from Enniskillen, Canada, is also black, has a vile odor, probably in virtue of sul- phur compounds, and we have reason to believe is derived from animal matter. The oils of northwestern Pennsylvania are mostly brown, sometimes green by reflected light, and have a pungent and characteristic odor. These are undoubtedly de- rived from the Hamilton shales, which contain ten or twenty per cent. of carbonaceous matter, apparently produced from the decomposition of sea-weeds, since these are in places exceed- ingly abundant, and nearly all other fossils are absent. The oils of Italy, though varying much in appearance, have usually an ethereal odor that is rather agreeable; they are of Tertiary age. The oils of Japan, differing much among them- selves, have as a common character an odor quite different from the Pennsylvania oils. So the petroleums of the Caspian, of India, California, etc., occuring at different geological horizons, exhibit a diversity of physical and chemical characters which may be fairly supposed to depend upon the material from which - 4 they have been distilled. The oils in the same region, however, are found to exhibit a series of differences which are plainly the SS ee ee eee ee, ees © — ee The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 279 result of causes operating upon them after their production. Near the surface, they are thicker and darker; below, and near the carbonaceous mass from wh ch they have been generated, they are of lighter gravity and color. We find, in limited quantity, oils which are nearly white, and may be used in lamps without refining,—which have been refined, in fact, in nature’s laboratory. Others, that are reddish yellow by transmitted light, sometimes green by reflected light, are called amber. oils, these also occur in small quantity, and as I am led to believe, have acquired their characteristics by filtration through masses of sandstone. Whatever the variety of petroleum may be, if ex- posed for a long time to the air, it undergoes a spontaneous distilla- tion, in which gases and vapors, existing or formed, escape, and solid residues are left. The nature of these solids varies with the petroleums from which they come, some producing asphal- tum, others paraffine, others ozokerite, and so on through a long list of substances, which have received distinct names as mineral species, though rarely if ever possessing a definite and invariable composition. The change of petroleum to asphalt may be wit- nessed at a great number of localities. In Canada, the black asphaltic oil forms by its evaporation great sheets of hard or tarry asphalt, called gum-beds, around the o:l-springs. In the far West, are numerous springs of petroleum, which are known to the hunters as ‘“‘tar-springs,” because of the accumulations about them of the products of the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum to tar or asphalt. Certain less common oils yield ozo- kerite as a solid, and considerable accumulations of this are known in Galicia and Utah. Natural paraffine is less abundant, and yet in places it occurs in considerable quantity. Asphalt is the common name for the solid residue from the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum; and large accumulations of this substance are known in many parts of the world, perhaps the most noted of all being that of the ‘‘Pitch Lake” of the island of Trinidad;—there, as every where else, the derivation of asphalt from petroleum is obvious and traceable in all stages. The asphalts, then, have a common history in this, that they are produced by the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum. But it should also be said that they share the diversity of character of petroleums, and the term 280 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. asphalt represents a group of substances of which the physical characters and chemical composition differ greatly in virtue of their derivation, and also differ from changes which they are constantly undergoing. Thus at the Pitch Lake in Trinidad, the central portion is a tarry petroleum, near the sides a plastic asphalt, and finally that which is of almost rock-like solidity. Hence we see that the solid residues from petroleum are unstable — compounds like the coa!s and lignites, and in virtue of their organic nature are constantly undergoing a series of changes of which the final term is combustion or oxidation. From these facts we might fairly infer that asphalts formed in geological ages anterior to the present would exhibit characters resulting from still further distillation; that they would be harder and drier, 7. é@., containing less volatile ingredients, and more fixed carbon. Such is, in fact, the case; and these older asphalts are represented by Grahamite, Albertite, etc., which I have desig- nated as asphaltic coals. These are found in fissures and cavities in rocks of various ages, which have been more or less disturbed, and usually in regions where springs of petroleum now exist. The Albertite fills fissures in Carboniferous rocks in New Bruns- wick, on a line of disturbance and near oil-springs. Precisely the same may be said of the Grahamite of West Virginia. It fills a vertical fissure, which was cut through the sandstones and shales of the Coul-measures; in the sandstones it remained open, in the shales it has been closed by the yielding of the rock. ‘The Grahamite fills the open fissure in the sandstone and was plainly introduced when in a liquid state. In the vicinity are oil springs, and it is on an axis of disturbance. From near Tampico, Mexico, I have received a hydrocarbon solid—essentially Gra- hamite,—asphalt and petroleum. ‘These are described as oecur- ing near together, and evidently represent phases of different dates in the same substance. I haye collected asphaltic coals, very similar to Grahamite and Albertite in appearance and chemical composition, in Colorado and Utah, where they occur with the same associates as at Tampico. I have found at Canajoharie, New York, in cavities in the lead-veins which cut the Utica shale, a hydro-carbon solid which must have infiltrated into these cavities as petroleum, but which, since the remote period, when the fissures were formed, has been distilled until it is now The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 281 anthracite.’ Similar anthracitic asphalt or asphaltic anthracite is common in the Calciferous sand-rock in Herkimer County, New York, where it is associated with, and often contained in, the beautiful crystals of quartz for which the locality is famous. Here the same phase of distillation is reached as in the coke residuum of the petroleum stills. Finally, in some crystalline limestones, detached scales or crys- tals of graphite occur, which are undoubtedly the product of the complete distillation of liquid hydro-carbons with which the rock was once impregnated. The remarkable purity of such graphite is the natural result of its mode of formation, and such cases resemble the occurrence of graphite in cast iron and basalt. The black clouds and bands which stain many otherwise white marbles are generally due to specks of graphite, the residue of hiydro-carbons which once saturated the rock. Some limestones are quite black from the carbonaceous matter they contain (Lycoming Valley, Penn., Glenn’s Falls, N. Y. and Collingwood, Canada), and these are sold as black marbles, but if exposed to heat, such limestones are blanched by the expulsion of the con- tained carbon; usually a residue of anthracite or graphite is left, forming dark spots or streaks, as we find in the clouded and banded marbles. In the preceding remarks, no effort has been made even to enumerate all the so-called carbon minerals which have been de- scribed. ‘his was unnecessary in a discussion of the relations of the more important groups, and would have extended this ar- ticle much beyond its prescribed length. Those who care to gain a fuller knowledge of the different members of the various groups, are referred to the admirable chapter on the ‘‘Hydro- carbon Compounds” in Dana’s Mineralogy. It will however add to the value of this paper, if brief mention be made of a few carbon minerals of which the genesis and re- lations are not generally known, and in regard to which special interest is felt, such as the diamond, jet, and the hydro-carbon jellies, ‘‘Dopplerite,” etc. The diamond is found in the debris of metamorphic rocks in many countries, and is probably one of the evolved products of the distillation of organic matter they once contained. Under peculiar circumstances it has apparently been formed by precip- 282 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. itation from sulphide of carbon or some other volatile carbon compound by elective affinitv. Laboratory experiments have proved the possibility of producing it by such a process, but the artificial crystals are microscopic, perhaps only because a long time is required to build up those of larger size. Jet is a carbonaceous solid which in most cases is a true lignite, and generally contains more or less of the structure of wood. Masses are sometimes found, however, that show no structure, and these are probably formed from bitumen which has separ- ated from the wood of which it once formed part, and which it generally saturates or invests. In some cases, however, these masses of jet-like substance are plainly the residuum of excre- mentitious matter voided by fishes or reptiles. These latter are often found in the Triassic fish-beds of Connecticut and New Jersey, and in the Cretaceous marls of the latter State. The discovery of a quantity of hydro-carbon jelly, recently, in a peat-bed, at Scranton, Pa., has excited some wonder; but simi- lar substances (Dopplerite, etc.) have been met with in the peat-beds of other countries ; and while the history of the forma- tion of this singular group of hydro-carbons is not. yet well understood, and offers an interesting subject for future research, we have reason to believe that these jellies have been of common occurrence among the evolved products of the decomposition of vegetable tissue in all ages. The generalities of the origin and relations of the carbon minerals have now been briefly considered; but a review of the subject would be quite incomplete without some refer- ence to the theories which have been advanced by others, that are in conflict with the views now presented. There have always been some who denied the organic nature of the mi- neral hydro-carbons; but it has been regarded as a sufficient answer to their theories, that chemists are agreed in saying that no instances have come to the knowledge of man of the occur- rence in nature of hydro-carbons, solid, liquid or gaseous, in which the evidence was not satisfactory that they had been de- rived from animal or vegetable tissue. A few exceptional cases, however, in which chemists and geologists of deserved distinc- tion have claimed the possibility and even probability of the production of marsh gas, petroleum, etc., through inorganic agencies, require notice. . The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 283 In a paper published in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. LX. p. 481, M. Berthelot attempts to show that the forma- tion of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen from inorganic substances is possible, if it is true, as suggested by Daub:ee, that there are vast masses of the alkaline metals—potassium, sodium, etc.— deeply buricd in the earth, and at a high temperature, to which carbonic acid should gain access; and he demonstrates that these premises being granted, the formation of hydro- carbons would necessarily follow. But it should be said that no satisfactory evidence has ever been offered of the existence of zones or masses of the unoxidized alkaline metals in the earth, and it is not claimed by Berthelot that there are any facts in the occurrence of petroleum and car- buretted hydrogen in nature which seem to exemplify the chemi- eal action which he simply claims is theoretically possible. Ber- thelot also says that, in most cases, there can be no doubt of the organic origin of the hydro-carbons. Mendeleeff, in the Revue Scientifique, 1877, p. 409, discusses at considerable length the genesis of petroleum, and attempts to sustain the view that it is of inorganic origin. His arguments and illustrations are chiefly drawn from the oil-wells of Penn- sylvania and Canada, and for the petroleum of these two dis- tricts he claims an inorganic origin, because, as he says, there are no accumulations of organic matter below the horizons at which the oils and gases occur. He then goes into a lengthy discussion of the possible: and probable source of petroleum, where, as in the instances cited, an organic origin ‘‘is not possi- ble.” It is a sufficient answer to M. Mendeleeff to say, that beneath the oil-bearing strata of western Pennsylvania are sheets of bituminous shale, from one hundred to five hundred feet in thickness, which afford an adequate, and it may be proven the true, source of the petroleum, and that no petroleum has been found below these shales ; also, that the oil-fields of Canada are all underlain by the Collingwood shales, the equivalent of the Utica carbonaceous shales of New York, and that from the out- crops of these shales petroleum and hydro-carbon gases are con- stantly escaping. With a better knowledge of the geology of the districts he refers to, he would have seen that the facts in the cases he cites afford the strongest evidence of the organic origin of petroleum. 284 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. Among those who are agreed as to the organic origin of the hydro-carbons, there is yet some diversity of opinion in regard to the nature of the process by which they have been produced. Prof. J. P. Lesley has at various times advocated the theory that petroleum is indigenous in the sand-rocks which hold it, and has been derived from plants buried in them. (Proc. Amer. Philos: Soe.) Volek, jopst desma .eres) My own observations do not sanction this view, as the number of plants buried in the sandstones of the Coal measures or the . Conglomerate must always have borne a small proportion in volume to the mass of inorganic matter; and some of those which are saturated with petroleum are almost completely des- titute of the impressions of plants. In all cases where sandstones contain petroleum in quantity, I think it will be found that there are sheets of carbonaceous matter below, from which carburetted hydrogen and petroleum are constantly issuing. A more probable explanation of the occurrence of petroleum in the sandstones, is that they have, from their porosity, become convenient receptacles for that which flowed from some organic stratum below. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has regarded limestones, and and especi- ally the Niagara and Corniferous, as the principal sources of | our petroleum; but, as I have elsewhere suggested, no econ- siderable flow of petroleum has ever been obtained from the Niagara limestone, though, as at Chicago and Niagara Falls, contains a large quantity of bituminous matter; also, that the Corniferous limestone which Dr. Hunt has regarded as the source of the oil of Canada and Pennsylvania, is too thin, and too barren of petroleum, or the material out of which it is made, to justify the inference. The Corniferous limestone is never more than fifty or sixty feet thick, and does not contain even one per cent. of hydro- carbons ; and in southern Kentucky, where oil is produced in large quantity, this limestone does not exist. That many limestones are more or less charged with petro- leum is well-known; and in addition to those mentioned above, the Silurian limestone at Collingwood, Canada, may be cited as an example; and as I have cteewanere shown, we have reason to beheve that the petroleum here is indigenous, and has been The Origin and [elations of the Carbon Minerals. — 285 derived in part, at least, from animal organisms; but the lime- stones are generally compact, and if cellular, their cavities are closed, and the amount of petroleum which, under any circum- stances, flows from or can be extracted from limestone rock, is small. On the other hand, the bituminous, shales which under- he the different oil regions, and are constantly associated with the flow of the petroleum and carburetted hydrogen, afford an abundant source of supply, holding the proper relations with the -reservoirs that contain the oil, and are spontaneously and con- stantly evolving gas and oil, as may be observed in a great num- ber of localities. For this reason, while confessing the occurrence of petroleum and asphaltum in many limestones, I am thorough- ly convinced that httle or none of the petroleum of commerce is derived from them. Prof. 8. F. Beckham, who has studied the petroleum field of Southern California, attributes the abundant hydro-carbon ema- nations in that locality to microscopic animals. It is quite possible that this is in part true in this and other localities ; but the bituminous shales which are evidently the sources of the petroleum of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, ete., generally contain abundant impressions of sea-weeds, and indeed these are almost the only organisms which have left any traces in them. IT am inclined therefore now, as in my report on the Rock Oils of Ohio, published in 1860, to ascribe the carbonaceous matter of the bituminous shales of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and hence the petroleum derived from them, to the easily decomposed cell- ular tissue of algue which have in their decomposition contrib- uted a large percentage of diffused carbonaceous matter to the sediments accumulating at the bottom of the water where they erew. Ina recent communication to the National Academy of Sciences, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has proposed the theory that anthracite is the result of the decomposition of vegetable tissue when buried in porous strata like sandstone; but an examin- ation of even a few of the important deposits of anthracite in the world will show that no such relationship as he suggests obtains. Anthracite may and does occur in sedimentary rocks _of varied character, but so far as my observation has extended, never in quantity in sandstone. In the Lower Silurian rocks anthracite occurs, both in the old world and in the new, where 286 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. no metamorphism has affected it and where it is simply the normal result of the Jong continued distillation of plant tissue, but the anthracite beds which are known and mined in so many countries are the results of the metamorphism of coal-beds of one or another age, by local outbursts of trap, or the steaming and baking of the disturbed strata in mountain chains—nume- rous instances of which are given on a preceding page. Mr. M. Mendeleeff, in his article already referred to, misled by want of knowledge of the geology of our oil-fields, and as- cribing the petroleum to an inorganic cause, connects the pro- duction of oil in Pennsylvania and Caucasia with the neighboring mountain chains of the Alleghanies and the Caucasus; but in all such localities, a sufficient amount of organic matter can be found to supply a source for the petroleum, while the upheaval and loosening of the strata along lines parallel with the axes of elevation in mountain chains has favored the decomposition (spontaneous distillation) of the carbonaceous strata. It should be distinctly stated, however, that no igneous rocks are found in the vicinity of productive oil-wells, here or elsewhere, and there are no facts to sustain the view that petroleum is a vol- canic product. In the valley of the Mississippi, in Ohio, Illinois and Ken- tucky, are great deposits of petroleum very far removed from any mountain-chain or volcanic vent, and the cases which have been cited of the limited production of hydro carbons in the vicinity of, and probably in connection with, volcanic centres, may be explained by supposing that in these cases the petro- leum is distilled from sedimentary strata, containing organic matter affected by the proximity of melted rock or steam. Everything indicates that the distillation which produces the greatest quantities of petroleum known is effected at a low tem- perature, and the constant escape of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen from the outcrops of bituminous shales, as well as the result of weathering on the shales, depriving them of all their carbon, shows that the distillation and complete elemination of the organic matter they contain may take place at the ordinary temperature. ee ee ee a, oe, See ve ees rs ; New Species of Yucatan Birds. 287 XVII.—Descriptions of two New Species of Birds froin Yuca- tan, of the Families Columbide and Formicariide. BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. Read May 29th, 1882. 1. Leptoptila fulviventris. Fore part of the head of a pale bluish white ; top of the head, back and wings, olive-brown; on the rump there is a slight greenish tinge ; the metal- lic color on the sides of the neck is light violet-red, changing to green on the hind neck ; the upper tail-coverts and central tail-feathers are colored like the back ; the outer tail-feather is blackish brown, ending with white on the inner web, and with light fulvous on the outer ; the next feather is similarly marked, and has the outer web of a lighter brown at the base, for a short distance ; the third feather has the outer web ruddy brown for two- thirds its length from the base, in other respects colored like the first and second feathers ; the fourth feather is brown for its entire length, except at the end, where it is fulvous white ; the primary and secondary quills are vandyke-brown, narrowly edged with pale fulvous white near their ends, tertials the color of the back ; the wing-coverts are of a warmer brown than the back; chin whitish; the sides of the head, the throat and the breast are of a rather dark reddish fawn-color ; the upper part and sides of the abdomen and the flanks are of a clear light fulvous ; the middle of the abdomen and the under tail-coverts are white, tinged with fulvous ; under wing-coverts and axillars deep reddish cinnamon ; the inner margins of the quills edged with very pale cinnamon ; bill black ; tarsus and toes dull fleshy brown, in the dried state. Length (skin), 10} inches ; wing, 5}; tail, 44 ; bill, +4; tarsus, #. Type in the museum of the State University of Kansas, at Lawrence, Kansas. Remarks.—Vhe color of the front is quite similar to that of L. albifrons, and it resembles that species somewhat in it color- ing above, but is rather darker; the under plumage is quite diff- erent in coloration, and also much darker; the under wing- 288 New Species of Yucatan Birds. coverts are of a lighter shade of cinnamon than in albifrons; the feet are strikingly smaller and more feeble than those of that species, and it is less in size. 2. Furnarius pallidus, The upper plumage is of a clear pale ochreous brown, or light snuff- brown ; the top of the head is of a darker brown; the front has a tinge of rufous; the lores are white; the rump and upper tail-coverts are light rufous ; the tail-feathers are light brown, blackish at their ends, which are edged with white ; inner webs of quills liver-brown, the outer colored like the back ; the wing-coverts and tertials are of a ruddy light brown ; the un- der wing-coverts are pale ochreous white, with blackish ends ; the under surfaces of the quills are light reddish ochraceous, for half their length from the base ; the throat and sides of the head are blackish ; the neck is encir- cled by a well defined collar of deep bright rufous, this color extending on the sides of the head behind the eye ; the upper part of the, breast is of a light dull brownish cinereous ; upper part and sides of the abdomen of a lighter shade, more of a pale brown ; the middle of the abdomen is white, just tinged with ochreous ; under tail-coverts brown, with a wash of dull light-colored rufous ; bill black ; tarsi and toes pale brown. Length (skin), 74 inches; wing, 33; tail, 23; tarsus, 14; bill from front, ¢. Type in museum of the State University of Kansas. Remarks.—This species is much paler in coloration than all others of the genus; in distribution of markings, it most resem- bles £. montliger, but it is very much paler throughout, the red collar is more distinct than in that species, and the white spot in the lores is larger; the tail is brown instead of black, and the _ochraceous coloring on the bases of the quill-feathers is twice the extent that it isin /. moniliger; it is also longer than that spe- cies in all its dimensions. When describing a new swift from Yucatan (antea, p. 245), I alluded to the fact, that the State University of Kansas had pur-. chased a full series of the birds obtained in that country by Mr. Geo. F. Gaumer. Since then Prof. F. H. Snow of the University has sent me the collection for determination; besides the species above de- scribed, of which there is but one example of each, it contains many others of much interest. bm Ps « a th de F : A GEOLOCICAL MAP Vou. I, PLary 18. DESIGNED TO ILLUSTRATE A PAPER ON THE PARALLEL DRIFT-HILLS \ LEE aaennoeos OF w WESTERN NEW YORK DE LAURENGE JOHNSON. \ Oo Fievations in feet, above Lake Ontario N are indicated by numerals. ie A ~ O eileen 245 tet above Se : SODUS BAY LE WN U /60 see aie 93 “>=. _Roek-100 \ hHannibal es . Cra -- =. -* Stet s. B ictory Siang a) ios oe 4.00 yy as Y 323 re 2 -o ~ ~ joo? 2 mer te fs Me SALINA --WATERLIME AND” “ORS; ~“ypPER | HELDERBERG GROUP sem wee eet Tite ea & = WON NA LS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOLUME I, 1880—82. ———___ +s. —__—_ The ‘“‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of tural History, are continued under the above name by the New York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, beginning with the year 1877. It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number _ to consist of not less than thirty-two pages (octavo), with or without plates. ice of Yearly Subscription, to resident and honorary members of the Academy, $2.00, or 60 cents a single number; to non-residents of New York City, $3.00, or $1.00 a number ; to residents of the City, hot members of the ademy, $5.00, or $1.50 a Pes The Academy has for sale a number of back solmnes of the Annals of the yeeum, each containing twelve or more numbers ; the price per volume is B pet 00 with uncolored plates, or $5.00 with colored plates. The Academy has established a Publication Fund,,contributors to which, . a the sum of $100 at one time, are entitled to all the pcientific SAGE ‘Pror. D. $8. MARTIN, Chairman of Publication Committee, 236 West Fourth Street. ‘JOHN H. HINTON, M. D., Treasurer, 41 West py se ond Street. [ee Any person residing within the United States, on sending the amount of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive tine numbers as they uppear, without further cost. Agents in London, TRUBNER & Oo bya CONT ENMS | XV.—The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New Yo ENCE JOHNSON (with Plate XVIID Yom cic XVI.—The Origin ahd Relations of the Carbon SORBINT oh (ico) cha ma Siren ese era ays -XVIL—Descriptions of Two New Species of E of the Families Columbidee and Fo IN. LAWRBENCE,.- 02-2506. 052 2222 < ‘ » : to ’ i 7 ‘ a eS) ’ rdceghe"y : cP hh z, ‘ December, 1882. s. 10 and I, ANNALS OF THE 4 N EW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Pee rare Sn LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. ew York: PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY, 1882. Gregory Bros., Peatnrers, 34 CARMINE Street, N. Y. OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY. 1882. President. JOHN 8. NEWBERRY. Vice-Presidents. BENS. No MARTEIN: ALEXIS A. JULIEN; Gonyesponding Secretany. ALBERT R. LEEDS. Recording Secretary. OLIVER P. HUBBARD. Greasurer JOHN H. HINTON. Joibrarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. Committee of Publication. DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. GHO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS. W. P. TROWBRIDGE. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 289 XVIII.—Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. BY F. G. WIECHMANN. Read April 10th, 1882. Meteorites present a theme of study that, from the very nature of the subject, is one of great interest. Interpreted by the spectroscope, it is true, rays of light have borne us know- ledge from regions of the heavens so remote, that the mind fails to grasp the actual idea of distance which the figures seek to convey; meteorites, however, these silent messengers from space, present the only tangible source whence information re- specting those distant parts may be gleaned. The thought that by questions correctly addressed,—questions assuming the form of chemical tests and of microscopic exami- nation,—they can be forced to reveal the secrets of their birth- place, lends to their study a certain charm, which all who have devoted themselves to this subject, must have experienced. It is therefore not surprising that these bodies should fre- quently have formed the object of study and research, in the laboratory of the chemist as well as in the hands of the micro- scopist. That particular branch of the microscopic examina- tion, of meteorites, however, to which I have mainly confined my attention, has hitherto received but little notice—thus affording ample opportunity for investigation. Before, however, proceeding to detail the methods and results of observation, it seems desirable to pass in brief review the various theories propounded to account for the existence of meteorites, and to glance at the classifications proposed. To avoid any possible confusion, I would state that in these ‘pages the term ‘‘aérolite” is to be considered as embracing al/ 290 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. bodies of ex-terrestrial origin that reach our globe, including thus meteorites, meteoric iron, and meteoric or cosmical dust. The term ‘‘ meteorite” is to designate all of such ex-terrestrial bodies as are composed of stony and metallic matter, without regard to the proportions in which these two may respectively occur. ‘‘Meteoric iron” is to be limited to that class of aéro- lites formed wholly of metal; while ‘‘meteoric dust” is to be confined to that portion reaching the globe in a finely divided state. The theories that have been advanced to account for the origin of aérolites are quite numerous. They may, however, all be conveniently classed with one or the other of two great divisions, of which the first would claim for them terres- trial sources ; the second, cosmical sources. The first may again be divided into— (a.) Volcanic. (6.) Atmospheric. The latter into— (a.) Lunar Volcanic. (6.) Planetary. (c.) Solar. (d.) Cometary. To discuss these theories in detail, is not within the province of this article; after a careful consideration of the merits of each, however, my inclination is to accept the so-called planetary theory advanced by Chladni, and which holds that ‘‘ meteorites are true though minute planetary fragments, Bae by the impact and disruption of larger cosmical masses.’ Of the many dinates ious suggested, only Daubreeé’s will be cited. He divides aérolites into— SIDERITES. ASIDERITES. Containing metallic iron. Containing no metallic iron. (1.) Holosiderous. (1.) Asiderous. Tron or alloys of iron and other metals only. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. . 291 (2.) Syssiderous. ' Iron as a continuous, homo- genous mass ; also stony and earthy matter. - (3.) Sporasiderous. Jvon disseminated in grains. Stony and earthy matter predominates. (a.) Polysiderous. Con- siderable iron. (d.) Oligosiderous. Little iron. (c.) Cryptosiderous. Jron hardly perceptible. In studying meteorites with the microscope, it is a frequent occurrence to find in the sections, formations of a very remark- able nature. These structures exhibiting certain mineral properties, are 2o¢ crystal-forms, as they lack in most instances totally the straight lines and the angles indicative of pronounced crystalline forma- tion ; but generally show outlines rounded and curved, in many instances presenting, at first sight, a certain similarity to some well-known types of organic life. The study of these peculiar structures has for some time past claimed my interest and attention, and this paper is to be the record of the work. To decide what appellation should be given to these forms, was a matter of considerable difficulty. They are not crystals, yet neither may they be termed amorphous, as they present certain positive recurring shapes. ‘To class them as crystallites might be permissible, for Zirkel’s definition, ‘‘ Crystallites may be termed all those lifeless formations to which a regular radiate structure (gliederwng) or grouping is peculiar, without their partaking, either as a whole or in their separate parts, of the general properties of crystallized bodies, in particular of a regu- lar polyedral ontline,”* is very sweeping and extensive, yet in * Ferdinand Zirkel: Die Krystalliten: Bonn, 1875, page 5. 292 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. the one instance where Zirkel in his work (Plate XVI, Fig. 1) pictures a form approaching to some extent those here under consideration, he designates it as ‘‘ Krystalliten-aggregation,” i. é., aggregation of crystallites. After mature deliberation, I decided to name these forma- tions ‘‘ Fusion-structures ;” and I trust that the observations detailed further on will justify my choice of an appellation. After these introductory remarks, it will be in place to present a brief and general outline of the work done, the material used, and the methods employed, and then to take up more in detail such points as may prove of special interest, finally giving the results and conclusions attained. The investigation embraced the examination of meteorites, lava, rhyolite, tufaceous trachyte and basalt. For the material of which my meteorite-sections were prepared, I am indebted _to Drs. C. F. Chandler, J. S. Newberry, ‘I. Egleston, Jr., and C. U. Shepard; and my acknowledgments are also due Mr. Hague, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, for the kindness with which he placed a valuable collection of rock-sections at my disposal. The method of work followed, was to examine each section carefully, with a comparatively low power, 75 diameters, to note any fusion-structure observed, and to study this attentively with higher powers, ranging from 150 to 800 diameters—in one in- stance even as high as 1,500 diameters; 300 diameters, how- ever, was the one usually employed. ‘Then was noted the behavior of the structure with regard to polarized light, and after this, generally, a rough sketch was made of the structure, and with slide-number attached, placed in a book kept for the purpose. From this book were afterwards chosen the most de- sirable forms; the respective slides placed under the microscope, and the figures on the plates were then drawn free-hand directly from the glass. $ The meteorite sections, of which there were 31 in all, repre- sent seventeen different specimens—care being taken to obtain, wherever possible, both longitudinal and transverse cuts. Following is a list of these meteorites, recording where known, the place and date of their fall, and in some cases giving their composition, with name of the analyst. Fusion-Struclures in Meteorites. 293 1. Fell at Newton County, Arkansas, - - : 2 «« Weston, Connecticut, - - - December, 1807. 3 ‘* Harrison County, Indiana, - - 4, «* Lenn County, lowa, - - - - February 25, 1847. OD. ** Charles County, Maryland, - - - February 15, 1825. 6 ‘** New Concord, Ohio, - - - May 1, 1860. i «< Bishopville, South Carolina, - - March, 1843. 8 «« Aigle, France, - : = - : April 26, 1803. 9. «« Chateau Renard, France, - - - June 12, 1841. 10. «« Staunern, Moravia, - > - : May 22, 1808. 11. *« Russel Gulch, Colorado,* - - - 12. «« Esterville, Emmet Co., Iowa, - - May 10, 1879. 118% «« “Waconda, Mitchell Co., Kansas, - = 14. “ Cabarras County, North Carolina, - October 31, 1849. 15. «« Iowa County, lowa, - - - - February 12, 1875. 16. *« Mezo-Maderas, Siebenbiirgen, - - September 4, 1852. 7 UR «* Meyellones, Desert of Atacama, - - Bolivia, South America, - : - ee : Concerning the appearance of the fragments obtained, No. 1 is of a black-brown color; No. 7%, white, and very brittle to the touch ; and the rest nearly all present a dark-gray, stony ap- pearance, with particles of metal disseminated through the mass. Nos. 8 and 10 are in part covered with a black rind of fused material, while No. 14 is noticeable for the brilliancy of the metal specks scattered through its stony portion. Of the meteorite which fell at Bishopville, 8. C. (No. 7 of . the list), and which consists essentially of a white mineral, | Waltershausen gives this analysis : Silica, : = 2 67.14 | Alumina, - - 1.48 Ferric Oxide, - - 1.70 Magnesia, - - Biheld : Lime, - - - 1.82 Water, - - 0.67 | Meteorite No. 9, that of Chateau Renard, France, has, ac- - cording to Dufrénoy, a Sp. Gr. of 3.56, and consists of— : Olivine, 50 pr. ct.; nickel iron, about 10 pr. ct. ; while the remainder appears to be mainly augite and labradorite. * Meteoric Iron. 294. Fusion- Structures in Meteorites. No. 17, which was found by Indians near Meyellones, in the Desert of Atacama, 8. A., and which is in greater part Bala is, according to E. ine Iron, - - - - 91.53 Nickel, - - - 7.14 Cobalt, SARS - 0.41 Phosphorus, - - 0.45 Copper, - - - trace. 99.53 Rammelsberg, however, states that the cavities contain a brownish-white silicate of calcium and iron, containing phos- phoric acid, perhaps olivine. Omitting from the list Nos. 11 and 17, as not being strictly meteorites in the sense in which the term is here regarded, fif- teen different specimens will remain. In eleven of these I met with fusion-structures, and, having made drawings of some of the most striking, will now call attention to some of the figures on Plates XIX and XX. The drawings being executed in India ink, of course show only in black and white. The white indicates the mineral mat- ter, the black the metallic portions. Frequently, however, the former was not of a pure white, but tinged with a yellow or brown tint, more or less pronounced, which effect naturally is lost in the plates. On looking over Plates XIX and XX, it will be seen that the structures depicted are essentially of two kinds :—those in which the mineral matter occurs without intervening metallic material, and those in which the former is scattered through the metal. A closer examination of some of these structures will now be entered into. A yery remarkable formation is that presented in Plate XIX, Fig. 1. It occurs in (Slide 2) Meteorite 2, which fell at Weston, Conn., December, 1807. It consists of twelve or thirteen bars which are grouped in such a manner as to afford an appearance * Watts’ Dict. of Chem., 2d sup, p. 796. Wien. Acad. Ber., LXIII [2]. 323. oe ere . ¥ Fusion- Structures tn Meteorites. 295 that greatly resembles that of a shell-structure, presenting un- der 300 D. power even a slightly curved face. Figure 2 is the upper left-hand part of the same structure, but magnified 1,500 D. Bringing so high a power to bear on the object, the latter loses the columnar appearance it shows under lower powers, and now looks like a terrestrial trap-formation. Later on reference will again be made to this structure. Figure 3, occurs in the same section, and shows the fusion- bars grouped, but more parallel to each other and not exhibit- ing the tendency to converge to a point, as in Fig. 1. Figures 4, 5 and 6, same plate, represent a different type of fusion-structures. In all these the bars are so small, that needles would, in these cases, be a more appropriate term; yet they very decidedly evince the tendency to converge at an angle. Figures 4 and 5 are magnified 300 D.; Fig. 6, however, from a different meteorite (14, Slide 23), is magnified only 75 D. ; Figures 7, 8 and 9 fully illustrate the type of the mineral substance scattered through the metal; Fig. 7, showing the convergence-tendency before noticed; Fig. 9, a parallel disposi- tion of the bars; while in Fig. 8 these bars have assumed a more curved form. In Plate XX, Fig. 3 displays the same curved appearance, but only in part—the lower portion of the structure showing the angular convergence of the needles; Fig. 2 1s to illustrate the sharp point to which sometimes the bars are drawn; which same feature one of the structures in Fig. 1 exhibits. Figs. 4, 5 and 6 need not be further discussed. Figures 7, 8 and 9 are treated of in detail further on, being intended to de- monstrate the action of fusion which meteorites suffer on their surface in traveling through the air-envelope surrounding the earth. These structures are nearly all magnified 300 D. ; some, how- ever, only 75 or 150 D., the exact number is in each instance given in. the Plate Index. ; All these fusion-structures polarize light; some, however, more than others. In studying the effect of polarized light on these formations, 296 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. I found it indispensable to: have some contrivance by which the section under examination might be completely rotated, and yet not be thrown out of the optical axis, the Nicols at the time remaining stationary, crossed so as to give a dark field. There are various devices to effect this, the most desirable of which is undoubtedly that whereby the whole stage may be rotated ; in my instrument, however, the stage is fixed, so I de- signed a rotation-plate that can be attached or removed as occa- sion may require, without interfering with the regular stage. As the arrangement is very simple and inexpensive, and may perhaps be found serviceable to others, a brief description may here find place. A is the fixed stage, 27 mm. long, 21 mm. broad. [ This pro- portion has been slightly altered, to adjust the cut to the page. | B is the rotation-plate, 17.5 mm. diameter. The centre of this plate has been cut out, forming a circular hole, C, 5.5 mm. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites, 297 diameter. To the lower part of this, a metal ring has been fastened, which exactly fits into a hole drilled in the fixed stage A, so as to permit the plate B to be completely turned, rotated, resting on A. _D, D, are the knobs attached, while H, E, are the steel springs that hold the slide under examination in place. B is graduated to any desired scale; in this case, it is graded in 45°. . F is a line engraved on Plate A. To. examine a section by polarized light (crossed Nicols), the slide is fastened by the springs EH, E; the line at D is now brought exactly opposite to F, and the Nicols set so as to give a dark field. The plate B is now turned, and whenever a change is shown by the section, a glance at the stage will show through | how many degrees it has been turned. As C is bored in such a manner that its centre is in the optical axis of the microscope, any object placed exactly in this centre can of course be revolved completely without being thrown out of its position in the field. | If, now, it be desired to make use of the fixed stage, the whole of B can simply be lifted out of its place, set aside, two steel clamps intended for this purpose fastened into G, G, and the regular stage is ready for use. A short time ago, a statement was made that organic forms, recognized as corals, crinoids and sponges, had been discovered in meteorites. Some few savants—among them, it is said, the illustrious Charles Darwin—accepted the evidence proffered in support of this announcement as conclusive; by far the greater part of scientists, however, brought the full weight of their authority to bear against the assertion, in many instances choosing satire and ridicule as their only mode of attack. As the photographs produced of the so-called ‘‘ organic” structures, and a personal inspection of sections of the identical meteorite (Anyahinya) from which most of these were taken, convinced me that the structures in question were analogous, if not identical, with those which I was studying, I felt warranted in giving this view of the question a thorough and impartial con- sideration, before myself advancing a theory of their formation. 298 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. Accordingly, I entered upon the investigation entirely unpre- judiced, placing before me the question, ‘‘ Can these structures be of organic origin ?” The first point to be inquired into in this connection will be, whether the various changes and influences to which meteorites are exposed in their course, would permit of the retention of any definite structure they may have possessed at the outset, or whether the possibility of this preservation would thereby be precluded. The specific gravity of meteorites ranges from about 1.7 to 4.0,—Culvier Gravier, in his work, ‘‘Sur les Etoiles filantes,” giving their mean density as 3.0,—water being chosen as unit. 5.2 is the specifie gravity of Mars; 1.4 that of Jupiter ; while 3.0 represents the density of the bodies which circulate in planetary space between these two. Assuming, then, that two of these cosmical masses come into collision,—and the possi- bility of such an event has been established by careful caleu- lation,—then, owing to the violence of the impact, the masses would burst asunder and the fragments be hurled far out into space. Coming, then, within the lmits of attraction of other worlds, gravitation would exert its influence, and, in conse- quence, these fragments would fall upon their surface— aérolites. Motion arrested is converted into heat; and it is easy to con- ceive that, by the force of the collision, heat must be developed ; heat so great that it may even cause a partial fusion of the col- liding masses. Those aérolites that reach the earth must, moreover, in traveling through the atmosphere surrounding our globe, encounter great resistance from this medium, and the friction thus caused, likewise results in heat-production. The lght-phenomena attending the fall of an aérolite, are doubtless owing to this cause—the heating of the mass being so considerable as to allow the same to attain a luminous state. Very interesting calculations have been made as to how high a temperature would be thus reached. The temperature ultimately acquired by the moving body, is the equivalent of the force with which the particles of air come in contact with it. ‘This temperature is stated to be 1° C fora velocity of one hundred and forty-five feet per second, and to go Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 299 on increasing with the square of the velocity. The average velocity of a number of well-observed aérolites* may be taken at 34—39 miles per second, and so, it will be readily secn, a very high temperature would be attained. The heat thus generated is of course sufficiently intense to fuse any substance known ; but it must be remembered that this heat is gradually acquired, and acquired from without to within; and moreover, the body is not exposed for any great length of time to this high temperature; hence it will naturally follow, that if this temporary heating is to exert any permanent effect, it will be the exterior of the body that will suffer the change. And so it proves to be. Examination of a number of aéro- lites reveals the fact that they are covered with a black crust or rind, which crust is the result of fusion. This crust, however, is generally very thin. To examine into this, I had prepared three scctions of the meteorite which fell at Aigle, France, April 26th, 1803 (Me- teorite 8, Slides 13, 14, 15). This specimen was of a dark grey color, with one face or side covered with the black fusion- crust. The first section was cut from the crust only ; the second was prepared from the inner, unaltered portion; while the third was cut from across both crust and unchanged part. The appearance that these three sections present under the microscope is shown on Plate XX, Figs. 7, 8, 9. Examined with 300 D. power, the first (Slide No. 13) exhibits a highly crystalline structure. The crystals are apparently thrown “criss-cross,” the one over the other; generally they are grouped so as to leave in their midst a circular opening which has once been filled by metal, —~. e., they have probably crystal- lized around some small globule of metal as a nucleus. In most cases, this has been lost in the cutting of the section ; in a few instances, however, it remains. This section polarizes beautifully. The second slide (No. 14) shows a sort of fibrous structure, entirely different from the preceding, as will be seen from Plate * Phipson: Meteors, Aérolites and Falling Stars. 300 - Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. XX, Fig. 8; while the third section exhibits a different pic- ture. The one part, consisting of the fused crust, presents the strikingly crystalline appearance of the first section (No. 13); this portion polarizes nicely. Then follows a dark, black mar- gin, and then comes the gradual transition to the grey, stony part, which is of a decidedly different nature. It hence appears that the great rise of temperature to which a meteorite is exposed in its travels through the earth’s atmo- sphere,—a temperature sufficiently high to produce the phe- nomena of light, frequently very brilliant, accompanying its fall,—exerts its influence only over a comparatively small por- tion of the body, and hence would not effect any material modi- fication or change in the original structure of the meteorite. The chemical composition of meteorites has frequently been investigated, and numerous analyses of such meteorites are re- corded. Moreover, it is no easy matter to take one or two of these analyses and present them as ‘‘ typical,” for as already re- marked, they range through all proportions of composition of mineral and metal. Some few analyses have already been given; here will only be cited the analysis of the meteorite which fell at Orgueil, France, May 14, 1864. The examination was made by Messrs. Pisani and Cloez, and first published in the Comptes Rendues of 1864; but the figures here given are from a corrected paper sent by M. Pisani to Mr. Phipson,* as the notice first issued contained several misprints. CLonz. — PISANI. Hygroscopic Water, - - 5.957 Ammonia, - - - - 0.098 Substance dried at 110° C. Humus, - : - E 6.027 Combined Water, - - - 7.845 Sulphur, - - - - 4.369 Sulphur, - - - - 5.75 Chlorine, <2 0.078 Chlorine, "|=" \ 2 a enn Phosphorus, - - - traces. Hyposulphurous Acid, - 0.58 Sulphuric Acid, - - - 2.195 Sulphuric Acid, - - = dep! Silica, - - - - 24.475 Silica, - = - - 26.08 * Meteors, Aérolites and Falling Stars; 1867, page 116. * ns Fusion-Structures tn Meteorites. 301 Alumina, - . - - 1.175 Alumina, - : 2 - 0.90 Oxide of Chrome, - - 0.225 Chrome Iron, = - : 0.49 Peroxide of Iron, - - - 18.824 Peroxide of Iron, - - - 8.380 Protoxide of Iron, - - 17.924 Protoxide of Iron, - - 21.60 Oxide of Nickel, - - - 2.450 Oxides of Nickel and Cobalt, - 2.26 Oxide of Cobalt, - - 0.085 Oxide of Manganese, - - 0.36 Oxide of Manganese, - - 1.815 Magnesia, - - - - 17.00 Magnesia, - - : - 8.1638 Lime, - - - - - 1.85 Lime, © - - - - 2.183 Soda, = = = : =o BONG Soda, - - - - - 1.244 Potassa, - : - = 0.19 Potassa, - - - - 0.307 89.19 99.434 Cloez groups his results thus :— Pisani calculates his as follows :— Magnetic Oxide of Iron, - 20.627 Magnetic Oxide of Iron, - 12.08 Magnetic Sulphide of Iron, - 7.974 Nickeliferous sulphide of iron, 16.97 Sulphide of Nickel, - - 3.169 Chrome Iron, - - =) O49 Silicates, - - - - 45.127 Silicates, - - - - 55.60 Humus, - = - - 6.410 Water and Organic Matter, - 14.91 Combined Water, : = tls) 91.119 100.00 The analysis is very complete, and will again be referred to. Among the numerous elements determined in meteorites, is carbon. The existence of this substance in meteorites has been thoroughly established by different analysts, and though it is by no means a constituent of the greater number of these bodies, yet its occurrence is of sufficient frequency to have given rise to the class of ‘‘ carbonaceous meteorites.” The presence of carbon in these meteorites is now to claim attention, bringing into consideration the second item, perti- nent to the query under discussion, namely: are there any data which would justify the inference that the agency of life was ever active on those worlds, of which meteorites are the fragments ? The first meteorite in which carbon was discovered, seems to be the one which fell at Alais, Departement du Gard, France, on the 15th of March, 1806. 302 Fusion- Structures in Meteorites. Thénard made the analysis,* and obtained— Silica, - : : : : 21.0 Manganese, - - - =) 9.0) Oxide of Iron, - - - 40.0 Nickel, - - - - oe) 26) Magnesia, - - - - 2.0 Chrome, - - - - Sele () Sulphur, - - - - 0.0 Carbon, - E - : - 2.5 81.5 In 1834, Berzelius estimated the quantity of carbon to be 3.05 pr. ct. ; and Roscoe, in 1862, made a careful examination of the same meteorite. He determined the carbon present to be 3.36 pr. ct. 1.94 pr. ct. of the stone was soluble in ether, from which, on evaporation, crystals were deposited that possessed an aromatic odor, and were fusible at 114°C. On applying heat, they sublimed, leaving a slight carbonaceous residue. Prof. J. Lawrence Smitht has also examined some of the same material, and states the results of his investigation to be in perfect accordance with those of Prof. Roscoe. In the meteorite which fell at Kold-Bokkeveld, Africa, Octo- ber 18, 1838, Harris found 1.67 pr. ct. of carbon, and about 0.25 pr. ct. of an organic substance soluble in alcohol; which compound is said to have been of a yellowish color, and of a soft, resinous aspect. The Kaba meteorite (Hungary), April, 1857, has been analy- zed by Wohler,{ and found to contain 0.58 pr. ct. of carbon, and besides this a hydro-carbon, resembling wax in appearance, and soluble in alcohol, being extracted by this reagent. Carbon has been determined in several other meteorites:§ in the one that fell in Sevier County, Tennessee, 1840, by J. Lawrence * Phipson, p. 114. Annales de Chimie, LXI, 103. + Researches on the Solid Compounds in Meteorites, 1876. + Phipson, p. 107. Imp. Acad. Sci, Vienna, 1859, § Popular Science Review, 1877. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 303 Smith ; Cranbourne, Australia, 1861, by Berthelot; Goalpara, India, about 1857, examined by T'schermak, who found in it 0.85 pr. ct. of a hydro-carbon (0.72 carbon and 0.13 hydrogen); Hessle, near Upsala, January 1, 1869, examined by Norden- skjold; this specimen, dried at 110° C, showed 51.6 pr. ct. carbon. Without entering into details about any of these, I would like to refer once more to the Orgueil meteorite, the analysis of which has previously been given in full. Cloez determined in it 6.027 pr. ct. of “‘humus,” and this carbonaceous matter, after drying at 110° C., was found to con- sist-of :* Carbon, : - : - 63.45 Hydrogen, - - - 5.98 Oxygen, - - - - 30.57 100.00 rather closely resembling the average composition of peat, which may be given as— Carbon, > > = = 60.06 Hydrogen, - - - 6.21 Oxygen, - - - - 00.73 100.00 The presence of carbon in meteorites being thus a well- established fact, the question as to its source naturally next presents itself. According to able researches, the carbon in meteorites occurs in two forms,—as graphite, and as small particles, impalpable in nature, scattered through the mineral portion of the mass. On the earth, this element occurs in three modifications, as diamond, as graphite, and as coal. Whatever may be the origin claimed for the diamond, as far as graphite and coal are con- cerned, I am aware of no instance where the parentage of either of these cannot be traced to the action of organic life. * Phipson: Méteors, Aerolites and Falling Stars, 1867. 304 Fusion-Structures in. Meteorites. Coal, indeed, is universally admitted to be of organic origin ; as to graphite, however, different views seem to be entertained. Yet it appears to admit of but little doubt that graphite is only a modification of the same substance. At Port Henry and at Ticonderoga, New York, graphite occurs in. crystalline lime- stone ; and if the graphite anthracite of Newport, R. I., be ex- amined, there will be seen with the graphitic anthracite, coal- plants, distorted and forced somewhat out of form by the force with which the action of metamorphism took place. A careful examination of different carbonaceous deposits, will in fact reveal the gradual transition of peat to graphite, through all the varying phases of development. ‘There is no abrupt change, no break or chasm, with coal on one side and graphite on the other; but step by step the gradation can be traced, leading from the peat formation to the complete modi- fication as graphite. Our present knowledge of the subject, however, does not warrant the removal of the question from the field of hypothe- sis and conjecture, us there may be influences at work of which we are ignorant; yet it certainly seems that the occurrence of carbon in meteorites, as graphite, in an amorphous condition, as hydro-carbon, presents a forcible argument as to life having once played a part in the history of these world-fragments. And now, these preliminary inquiries disposed of, and it being found that there is nothing in the existing conditions which would preclude the possibility of organic structures oc- curring in meteorites, attention may be directed to the original problem presented, namely :—Are these fusion-structures of organic origin ? The first step taken toward this end, was the study of sections of typical corals, crinoids and sponges. When a knowledge of these forms had been gained, I turned to the examination of the meteoric sections, carefully searching for any structures that _would bear out the features of these organized bodies. What forms I found, what outlines they presented, etc., have already been detailed and need not here be repeated ; consideration will now be given to the merits of the different arguments presented in support of the claim that these structures are of organic origin. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 305 The method of demonstration resorted to for this purpose is of a two-fold character.* The first may be styled the ‘‘nega- tive,” inasmuch as it is intended thereby to show that these structures are no¢ mineral formations ; the second is to be con- sidered as ‘‘ positive.” As far as the latter lne of argument is concerned, the only evidence offered is a considerable number of photographs of the objects in question, accompanied by a history of what the au- thor considers them, and an enumeration of the various organic forms (corals, crinoids, sponges) which he recognizes therein. These photographs are for the most part well executed, and bear testimony to considerable labor that must have been ex- pended in their production. However, as to their value as evidence, individual opinion must be formed by personal in- spection ; for my part, the mere resemblance of outline (which some certainly possess) to the contours of organic structures, does not suffice to convince me of their being such structures— the characteristic details of these, even, being wanting. Of greater interest are the arguments advanced to show that these structures cannot be mineral forms, and some of these points will now be briefly considered. “Minerals,” it is urged,t ‘‘are either crystallized or not crys- tallized. In the first condition they have definite structure formed in obedience to a law, and hence recurring; they come of planes which in section are projected as straight lines. These forms (lines and angles) are repeated, varying only in size and not in condition ( Verhdliniss.” Such forms, it is claimed, are not to be found among these structures, declared to be organic. ‘‘ Among them,” it is said, ‘tis no form with plane or angle; all are spheres (Awgelz7), ellipses with deviations from the mathematical form, but deviations which are constant. Hence, entirely apart from the coinciding of structure, a con- stancy of outline is shown, but of other forms than the crystal- line forms of olivine or enstatite would have to show.” The claim that no planes or angles are to be found in these structures, is decidedly incorrect, and the very photographs * Dr. O. Hahn: Die Meteorite (Chondrite) und ihre Organismen. + Dr. O. Hahn, op. cét., p. 21. 306 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. offered show the fallacy of this statement—to elucidate which still more, a glance at my drawings will suftice. Figures 1 and 2, Plate XIX, represent a structure I found in a section of the meteorite that fell at Weston, Conn., Decem- ber, 1807. Fig. 1 is magnified 300 D. Fig. 2 is the left upper portion of Fig. 1, magnified 1500 D. The drawing will serve to indicate the appearance presented ; the impression produced under the latter, power was like that of seeing a terrestrial trap-formation, entirely doing away with any consideration that might have been entertained of its possible organic origin,—the dots and points that might possibly, under a lower power, have been construed to be channels and tubular openings, resolving themselves into lines of fracture, the columns assuming a prism- like shape. Figs. 4, 5 and 6, same Plate, will show what a perfect system of angular radiation from different centre-lines, some of these structures possess. As to the statement*: ‘‘ Rarely, indeed, small places occur with true crystals, but in a manner which does not in the shght- est (durchaus nicht) affect the value of proof of these facts,” I must observe that it has been my experience to meet with these places quite frequently, and that moreover, in my judgment, they form a very valuable clue indicative of the method of formation of these structures. The most curious argument (?), however, advanced to sup- port the assertion that these structures are of organic origin, is the following :t “Finally, attention must be called to a contradiction in™ which science becomes involved, if the structure of chondrites is to be explained by the mineral property. ‘This is the optical behavior of these inclosures. “Tf they were crystals, and if the lamellar fracture (dldtter- bruch) [olivine has none, and yet structures are found in the so- called olivine spheres, hence lamellar fracture !] were the cause of the structure, the mineral would of necessity have to refract light. With most of these inclosures, however, no light-refrac- * Dr. O. Hahn, op. cit., p. 21. t+ Ibid., p. 23. ee eee ee Fusion-Structures tn Meteorites. BOM tion is shown, not even ‘‘aggregat-polarization!’ Hence they can be neither simple minerals nor crystals, least of all could the structure be explained by lamellar fracture. This fact,—the optical behavior,—should alone have led to the correct interpre- tation.” This statement is truly remarkable, and if this argument be intended to serve as keystone to the whole structure of theory and observation (7), this structure must fall, for the keystone is worthless. In the first place, the structures that I found in meteorites do polarize hight; and, secondly, ¢iwe fossil structures of organic origin, crinoids, sponges and nummulites, which I tested, also polarize light; so, even if the statement that these inclosures do not polarize light, should be granted to be true, even then I fail to see how an organic origin can be claimed for them on the strength of this, when true organized structures of the kind under consideration possess the property of polarizing ! And so, being convinced that the existence of these fusion- structures could not be ascribed to the ag-ncy of life, I con- tinued my work in the hope of discovermg some clue or data that would serve to unravel the mystery of their formation. The next step taken was the examination of terrestrial igne- ous rocks, some of which show a similarity of composition with meteorites. Besides rhyolite and basalt, there were examined —- . Scoria from Sandwich Islands. Scoria from Las Valles, New Mexico. Tufaceous trachyte, Lighthouse Rock, Colorado River. . Lava from Mount Vesuvius, Italy. Laya from Vesuvius. (Different external appearance.) Lava from Mount Vesuvius. (Different specimens.) BSS S) Sess From these six latter specimens, I had in all, thirteen sections made, obtaining in each case longitudinal and transverse cuts. In A, C, EK and F, fusion-structures were found; D did not show them, while B exhibited, very perfectly, the true microli- thic structure. On Plate XXI will be found several of the most character- istic fusion-structures observed in some of these. 308 Fusion- Structures in Meteorites. Fig. 1 is taken from (Shde A, 1: Longt.) a section of scoria from the Sandwich Islands. The structure polarizes, but not strongly. A glance at the drawing will show the similarity with the forms found in meteorites. This, as all figures on Plate X XI, is magnified 300 D. Fig. 2 is taken from a section of basalt (U. 8S. Geol. Expl., 49th Parallel ; north of American Flat Creek, Washoe). Polar- izes very. finely. Fig. 3 is from a section of rhyolite. (U.S. Geol. Expl., 40th Parallel; N. E. slopes River Range, Nev.) ‘This section ap- pears grey by ordinary light, with a faint tinge of yellow. Only very small parts of the section polarize at all. The struc- tures appear very much lke long and curved tubes filled with minute grey dots. The sack-like form in the left part of the field is filled with darker-appearing particles. Fig. 4 is from a section of lava from Mt. Vesuvius, ee (E. Slide 10: Transverse). Polarizes very finely. This figure is part of a large structure hexagonal in shape. Fig. 5 is from tufaceous trachyte of Lighthouse Rock, Colorado River (C. Side 6: Longt.). This structure also polar- izes finely. ) And now, having finished the experimental part of the in- vestigation, and having recorded the results obtained and the observations made, it must be considered, to what inferences these will lead, to what conclusions they will entitle us. The problem to be solved is, then, to word it once more: What are these peculiar formations occurring in meteorites, and to what force or forces do they owe their existence ? The answer to this is to be sought and found in the observa- tions noted on preceding pages; a brief veswmé, however, will place the matter in a clearer light. In the first place, the existence of these peculiar formations has been established in a considerable number of different me- teorites, which fell at different times and on different parts of the globe. A careful examination has shown that, in every case, these formations exhibit certain constant, recurring forms of outline and structure, that stamp them as a distinct class of mineral bodies. Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 309 Secondly, it has been determined that similar structures occur in terrestrial igneous formations, different in kind and coming from different localities, yet each bearing this same mark. The chemical composition of certain eruptive rocks, is often very similar to that of meteorites; in fact, so closely do the figures of analysis of certain lavas agree with those of some me- teorites, that this analogy of composition has been regarded as one of the mainstays of the nevertheless untenable theory, that would assign to meteorites a terrestrial volcanic source. The origin and method of formation of igneous rocks have been thoroughly investigated and studied ; it is well known that these rocks have once all been in the state of fusion, and that then, cooling, slowly or rapidly, according to existing conditions, they finally attained the solid state. I have not been able to give more than a cursory glance at Vogelsang and Zirkel’s valuable work, ‘‘ Die Krystalliten,” yet I believe myself to be only bearing out the observations there noted, in stating, that on the cooling of mineral masses from a state of fusion, frequently there separate—or perhaps segregate— from the main mass, minute granules, globular in form, which eranules will be found scattered through the mass. : I am not aware whether any explanation of this phenomenon has been offered and accepted; but to me it seems most likely, that as the mass is not homogenous in composition, certain parts of it, yielding up their heat more readily than the sur- rounding portions, would naturally contract slightly, and thus form minute particles or globules by themselves in the mass. In support of this suggestion, 1 may s:ate that, in nearly all, if not in all, cases which I studied, the muterial forming the structure appeared to be of a different nature from the matter immediately surrounding it. If a section be taken through a spheroidal body, the resulting cut will be either a circle or of a shape more or less elliptical, © according to how the section was made. The structures encountered, as has been shown, all present rounded or curved outlines; in some cases even approaching very closely to a circle. Resting, then, on all these facts revealed by observation, I feel justified in declaring, that these structures represent sec- 310 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. tions cut through such globules formed on the cooling of the mass from fusion, a fact on which rests the appellation, Fusion- structures, which I assigned to them. Finding these fusion-structures alike in terrestrial igneous formations and in meteorites, we are led to consider another very interesting circumstance. Terrestrial rocks, whose method of formation is well known, differing from one another in several features, yet all owing their birth to the same physical forces, exhibit certain remark-. uble and distinctive structures in their‘formation. Extra-terrestrial bodies, meteorites, in many cases analogous i composition’ to the former, show with great frequency these identical, distinctive structures. The conclusions to which these facts lead are obvious. There is no accident in nature: like causes, under like conditions, pro- duce like effects. The structures in the rocks examined, were found to be sec- tions through globules, which globules were produced on cooling after fusion ; the structures in the meteorites are identical with the structures in the igneous rocks; therefore, they too must be the result, of the cooling after a state of fusion. That these globules in meteorites could not have been formed during the partial fusion that such bodies experience in passing through the envelope of‘air surrounding the earth, has been proven by the facts previously stated (pages 299 and 300); there- fore, plainly and unmistakably, these structures, these records in stone, bear evidence that fusion and subsequent cooling must have formed a chapter in the history of those worlds of which. these meteorites are but the scattered fragments. NGO AE Ee The drawings on the three accompanying Plates were executed free-hand, in preference to making use of a camera lucida. Had photography been resorted to, the forms depicted would undoubtedly have been obtained with greater accuracy in outline and detail than it is possible to procure, even in the most conscientious free-hand work. The latter, however, offers the inestimable advantage of permitting the struc- ture studied, and this structure only, to be shown; while photography necessarily introduces all that lies above and beneath, and in the immediate neighborhood of the object under the glass of the microscope. Hence, whenever on the Plates an object is drawn in the centre of the field, the rest of the space being left blank, it must be understood that the surrounding matter has been simply ignored in the drawing, as being foreign to the structure studied. ENIDEXG TOP PACERS PLATE XIX. Figure. No. of Meteorite. No. of Slide. Diameters Magnified. lta 2 2 300 2 2 2 1500 (Left upper part of 1.) 3 2 2 300 4 2 30 300 es 2 30 300 6 14 23 15 ih 14 23 300 8 | 14 23 300 9 | ae 8 300 Cy ARS ya Veen vy re Be G) oti y AS Wie Ah ee 312 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. . PLATE XX. Figure. No. of Meteorite. No. oaeial, 1 6 . 1 2 a0 ay, 3 16 27 4 2 2 5 9 16 6 15 25 (Exterior,) "7 8 8 8 pe as 9 8 ig The meteorite numbers refer to page 293. PLATE XXI. ‘os Figure. “Material. Locality. 1 Scoria Sandwich Islands. 2 Basalt North of Am. Flat Creek, Wash 3 Rhyolite , N. E. slopes River Range, Nev. — 4 Lava Mt. Vesuvius, Italy. 5 Recue t Lighthouse Rock, Colorado R. i ra d # Literature of Electrolysis. 313 XIX.—Index to the Literature of Electrolysis and its Applications, 1784-1880. BY W. WALTER WEBB. Read April 24th. 1882. The following Index is confined to the literature of electro- lysis and its applications, especially in electro-metallurgy ; the whole subject of the various forms of the galvanic battery, its theory and uses, has been omitted ; electro-capillarity and pas- Sivity are, however, included. It is not claimed that the Index is complete, yet care has been taken to make it include the best-known English, French and German journals. I must express my thanks to Prof. H. C. Bolton for his sug- gestion of the idea of compiling such an Index, for his kindness in allowing the plan of those published by himself to be copied, aad for much assistance which he has given me. I am indebted to the Index of the Literature of Ozone, pub- lished by Professor Leeds, for many of the references in the following Index. Wises TRINITY COLLEGE, APRI:,, 1882. 10) [For list of authorities, with abbreviations, etc., see the close of the Index. | 314 Literature of Electrolysis. InpEx To THE LITERATURE OF ELECTROLYSIS. 1784|Cavendish Phil. Trans., LX XIV, 119. |Effect of the spark on air. Kirwan es LXXIV, 154. |The same. 1785)Cavendish ee LXXYV, 372. |The same. Van Marum {Quoted by Cahours, C. R.,|Ozone by the spark, LXX, 369. 1788|Cavendish Phil. Trans., LX XVIII, 261.| Nitrous Acid by the spark. 1789) Milner of LXXIX, 300. |The same. Troostwyk Journ. de Phys., Nov., 1789.) Decomposition of water. Van Marum /|A.c. p., XI, 270. Effect of the spark on CO». 1790| Keir Phil. Trans., 1790, 359. Precipitation of metals, 1797) Henry fa LXXXVII, 401.|Electrolysis of ‘‘carbona- ted hydrogenous gas.” Pearson “e XC, 188. Electrolysis of water. Gilb. Ann., VI, 870. 1800) Nicholson INm@a,, ds, GIN, lis}. Decomposition of water. 1801|Cruikshank Gilb. Ann., VII, 106. Electrolysis of H.SO.. Gautherot A.c. p., 1, XX XIX, 208. |Decomposition of water. Gilbert of il, OQbil, WOR, The same. Ritter Gottl. Alm., 1801. Electro-chemical decom- position. Simon Gilb. Ann., VIII, 35. Decomposition of H.504. Vauquelin A. c. p., 1, XX XIX, 103. |New experiments in gal- vanism. 1802) Facquez i 1, XLIII, 306. Decomposition of HCl. “Gq. H.” INT@ES dey Pe WEY aketay, Electrolysis of ‘‘carbona- ted hydrogen.” Wollaston WEN, Gy (Dog Wy Ibe IG). Electro-chemieal decom- 1803 position. ; Davy a9 1, XLIV, 206. Action of galvanic elec- tricity. Gahn Gilb. Ann., XIV, 235. Electrolysis of arsenate of potassium. Hisinger and |Geh., J., I. Electro-chemical decom- Berzelius position. Simon A.c. p., 1, XLV, 182, 13. |Decomposition of H.0. 1804) Wilkinson Nich.) J., 2, EX, 248. The same. 1805) Brugnatelli Phil. Mag., 1805. Gilding. Pacchiani HN © JOs5 ie ION, ile Decomposition of HCl. 1, LYI, 152. Sylvester Iti digs BG OG: Decomposition of H.0. 1806|Grotthuis A.c. p., 1, LVII, 10, 54. |The same. Kidel Nich., J., 2, XIV, 1384. Analysis by electrolysis. Pacchiani A. c. p., 1, LX, 314, 325. |Decomposition of HCl. Riffault ve 1, LVI, 182. The same. Literature of Electroly Or SUS. 1806|Sylvester Wilkinson 1807| Alemani i L 1808} Bucholz Chompré Berzelius Davy Guyton Hisinger and Berzelius Launay Pfaff Riffault and Chompré Sylvester Veau de aunay Davy Descostils Seebeck Sylvester Théodore ISOS; A. B.” 1810 . | Brande Davy Davy Davy Bucholz Pfaff Singer Sylvester Van Mons Davy Gay-Lussac and Thénard Phil. Mag., 1, XX XV, 307. Nich., J., XV, 50, 28. ©" XIV, 342, 28. AW GxDs, 1, ake Veroeer;, Phil: Mag., 1, XXVIII, 339. Jake) CA fay Ll OP ate GO AL, JUDIL, tek Iie bres. OWA alee Phil. Mag., 1, XX VIIL, 1, OE 22s INTO. deg 2 WALL, SBO)s By KOWAL 7@p |Nich. J., 2, XXIII, 263. Gilb., Ann., X XVII, 301. Phil. Mag., 1, XX VII, 260. INS G Obs Il, IDOL, Bay fis il, JLOXOUL, (7h, 'Gilb., Ann., XXV, 454. [Nich. J., 2, XVII, 155, 28. A. c. p., June, 1808, 266; Gehl., J., XVII; Nich. J., 2, XXYV, 39. Phil. Trans., XCVIII, 33 ;} hil Maer; 1) XOX Heels 146% Nich yee: INUDNG US iia- exXoke 290 AMC: Dene e172) XLV, 319; LXVIII, 205, 225. AN, Gx [Sonal LOD GU Meare N. Gehl., V, 482. WHEN; Va, 2, ODS Uae JAN. Gs Obs Il, ITU (Phil. Mag., 1, XX XIII, 87. CV OO: Oy anal Thy ROKORWYI, AES AN Top ly IO TCR), 22! Nich? J, 2, XV, 321. Phil. Trans., 13810, part 1; Phil. Mag., 1, XXXV, 401. Nich., J., 2, XXII, 149. Gehl., J., VII, 734. \Nich., J., 2, XVII, 362, 28. Ge. SOROS BIS. 2, SMT, 258: 2, XXXIV, 179. 1ejautl, Aibaiatses (OA ie Ja\s (Gs Jobe 1, LXXY, 27, 129. I. Go JO, dl, AORODUL Wz ce Cal dD; ce oe Experiment in electrolysis Supposed production of HCl from HO by electrolysis. Electrolysis of H.O and HCl. Electrolysis of HCl and KClOs. Electrolysis of HCl. ;|Decomposition by electri- city. Electrolysis of sulphides. Electrolysis of concen- trated H.S80,. HCl by electrolysis. Electrolysis of HCl. Theory of electrolysis. Precipitation of metals. HCl by electrolysis. Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. Na and K by electrolysis. Electrolysis of salts. NH, amalgam by electro- lysis. Electrolysis of the alkalies. Electrolysis of metals. On Davy’s theory. Electrolysis of blood. Electrolysis of Nand NH. Electrolysis of Na and K. Letter on electrolysis. Precipitation of metals. HCl by electrolysis. Electro-chemical experi- ments. Electrolysis. The same. 'Electro-chem. researches. Electrolysis of NHs. 316 Literature of Hlectrolysis. 1810) Wollaston A.c. p., 1, LXXIV, 299. |Electrol. of the secretions. 1811) Anderson Nich., J., 2, XXX, 188. Electrolysis of H.0. Davy © «2, XXIX, 112. _|Electrolysis of O. Donovan Phil. Mag., 1, XXXVII,|Davy’s theory. 227, 245. Gay-Lussac — |A. c. p., 1, LX XVIII, 245. Electrolysis. 1826 1827 1828 1829 and Thénard Grotthuss Heinskin 2) Singer Murray 3) Avogadro Berzelius Brande /Donovan Acton Wollaston 2) Fisher Van Mons Witting and Bischoff ‘Becquerel ‘De la Rive Ferré Fisher Davy Davy Dumas |Fisher Becquerel Davy De la Rive Fisher Nobili Pouillet Sérullas Davy |Fisher Libri | i Fisher co il, JEDSOUDL, Ha INTeln. J., 2, XXX, 112. Nich. J., 2, XXX, 157, 28. 66 2, OOM UO, Zl, COD, NORGE S i: HAVRE MO spttls LXXX VII, 286. - LXXXVI, 146. Phil. Mag., 1, XLIV, 124. XLY, 154, 308, 380. Phil. Mag., 2, II, 112. A. c. p., 2, XVI, 45. Gilb. Ann., LX XII, 289. e LXXITII, 310. Be LXXIV, 424. Mem. del’ Acad., XI, 33. A.c. p., 2, XXVIII, 190. ot DSOROWAUOL, BEG T. Ann., N. §., X, 262. Poge., IV, 291; VE 43. ° Phil. Traus., CXVI, Pt. 3, 383. Phil. Trans., Phil. Mag., T. Ann., N. S., XI, 248. Ay ic. p., 2) XXXII 265) Pogg., VIII, 488; IX, 255 A. c. p., 2, XXXV, 118, 23. Phil. Mag., 2, I, 31, 94, 190, 1825 A. c p., 2 XXXY, 164; Pogg., X. 311. Pogg., X, 608. A.¢. p.,2, XXXIV, 280, 419. es XXXVI, 5. ce XXXIV, 192. Phil. Trans., 1826, Pt. 3: Rep. of Arts, 3, V, 76. Pogg., XII, 499. Edinb. So. Sei., 1, LX, 353 A.¢.p.,2, XX XVIIE, 100; Rep. of Arts, 38, VIII, 116. XVI, 124; Pogg., Archiy., X VJ, 219. Kastn. std earn 2, LXVIL, 89; Metallic arborizations. Electrolysis of NasCOs. Electrolysis. Electrolysis of H.O. Berzelius’s theory. Theory of electrolysis. Electrolysis. Metallic arborization. K by electrolysis. Electrolysis. Precipitation of metals. Arborizations. The same. Electrolysis with currents. Electrolysis. weak ;|Application of the theory of electrolysis. + Precipitation of ntetels. Electrolysis and chemical changes. Preservation of metals by electrolysis. Electrolysis of CaCQOs. Precipitation of metals. Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. History of electrolysis. Hlectrolysis of bromine. Precipitation of metals. New phenomena in elec- trolysis. Electrolysis. The same. Electrical relations. Precipitation of metals. and chemical ;Electrolysis of odorous substances. Precipitation of metals. — 1. = 1829| Becquerel 1830} Becquerel Bonijol Dumas 18351) Arago Barry Becquerel Brande 4 1832|Becquerel Bonijol Botts Hachette 1883) Becquerel Becquerel Bouchardat Faraday 1834 Avogadro Bessemer Faraday 1835 Aimé ' |Becquerel Becquerel Begriff Botts Connell Martens Poggendorf /Van Mons Literature of Hlectrolysis. Ake © JOs4 24 QOLIL, Be DIGIIL 220; Poge., Savi 306 ; Phil. Mae 2; Berzl., AX © [Ds- Poge., Jahresb., X, 29; Mag., 2, VII, 226. Bibl. Univers., Oct., 1830. AMID: Ne Cle, MWe NO Ig), Rep. of Arts, 2, VIII, 370. 3, XII, 119. Phil) Mag,, LX, 357, 33. AX. ©; Jobs 2, SGLNANOL, BB Pogg., — 308 ; Mag., 2, 1OXG Ze Br, A; A. Sei., Pharm. Centrl., WG Bee J. Roy. Inst., 1 293: Am. do Sik, I, XXI, 368. Bibl. Univ., Sept., Am. J. Sci., A.¢. p., 2, Sept., 1852; Am di. SGis, Il, KOI, 114, J. Cs Day Bs ILIV, BAO, Mem. de l’Acad., XII, 581 As Cs Wes Pogg., Ve XG, Th; ROVIN, BSB}. 1838, 457. F. R., I, 87, 127; Phil. Mag. 2, Tae 253, 450. IN, Cx [0b4 2p JUDOMY Hy, Mech. Mag., 1864, 73. 1M, Teg Ml ge, Bags lel, Mag. sPamcieoceol MLO VI, 84, 125, 171, 272, 410. Geet Tete, IS real Jahreshb., XIV, 791. CO) TR. JL, 4am \Ann. Ch. Pharm., XVI, 129. ‘Bibl. cree 1835, 120; Am. Bull. Acad. Brus., II, 57, 18. ‘Phil. Mag., 3, VIL, 421. 2 XLII, 131, 380; XVIOL 143; Berzl., Phil. Phil. 1831-32, 468. 1882 ; 1, XXIV,197. .| Electrol. Dingl., J., L, 289; J. Pharm., Mem. del’ Acad. Sci. We, beaks 291; NG 161, 252, 384, 424, ‘456 : aol, AVNIC) py 2, LXS 1645 Berle di, StGl,, XXX, 369. Edinb. NS Phil. It, XIX, 159. (Bull. Acad. Brus., 1 11, 199.} B17 Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. The same. Electrolysis of H.O by at- mospheric electricity. Deposits in lead pipe. Electrolysis of zinc. Electroly. by atmospheric electricity. Electrolysis of oxides of - Ke and Mn. Electrolysis substances. Electro-metallurgy. Titanium by electrolysis. Decomp. of water by at- mospheric electricity. Electrolysis. of organic by the electric induction spark. Effect of vegetation on electrolysis. ;|Electrolysis by weal cur- ALAIUL als = OOK, 465, Ami: rents. Electrolysis. , Electrolysis by frictional electricity. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis. Electro-chem. apparatus. Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. Electro-chem. apparatus. 'Klectrolysis. Electrolysis by terrestrial magnetism. Electrolysis of ethers. ‘Theory of electrolysis. |Vindication of Faraday. Theory of electrolysis. + 18 1837 1838 Literature of Electrolysis. Walford Becquerel De la Rive De la Rive Kinbrodt Elkington Faraday Gherardi Paillette Sché6nbein Solly 4 Becquerel Bird Bird Connell Cross De la Rive Dulk Elkington Faraday Fox Noad Paillette Pouillet Schénbein Sturgeon Becquerel Bird Bird Bottiger Clarke Elkington and Barratt Phil. Mag., 3, VIII, 170, Gh 1k5 0b, Bat). Phil. Mag., 8, LX, 234. A.c. p., 2, LXI, 262. Rep. of Arts, 4, VIII, 223. Phil. Mag., 3, IX, 60. Nov. Com. Bon., 1, V, 182. C. R., III, 724. Poge., XX XVIII, 449. Phils Mace a3, Xe a3 os VIII, 130. Ding eae Nellis C. R., IV, 824. es 831. « -V, 88; Berzelius, Jahresb., XVI, 129. Jedmmily Weyer) NG ays 5? 357 ; J. pr. chem., X, 310. Phil. Mag., 3, X, 376. 93. ce ee ce Cc. R., TV, 882. be Ann. Chem. Pharm., XXIV) 160. Ann. Chem. Pharm., X XIV 161. Rep. of Arts, 4, VIII, 354. Phil. Mag., 3, X, 175 ee ce ce ce Coie LNG 342. oe 785. Phil Mags, a xo tsa. 72: 267, 425. Ann. Elect., I, 11. Ces eNoxalle Ann. Hlect., II, 30; Phil. Mag., XIII, 379, 3 sr. Am. J. Sei., 1, XX XIII, 267. Phil. Mag., 3, XI, 298. Am. J. Scei., 1, XX XIII, 217. Br. Pat. Rep., 1888, 1742; Lond. J., IEG 79. Davy’s theory of electro- lysis. Extraction of Ag from the ore. Nobili’s discoveries. Electro-metallurgy. Theory of electrolysis. Gilding. Passive iron. Heat in electrolysis. Electro-chem. phenomena. Passive iron. . Electrol. of Cl, Br, I. Arborization. Electrolysis in soluble bodies. Influence of surface on electrolysis. ‘Electrolysis in the forma- tion of minerals. ‘Extraction of minerals by electrolysis. Electrolysis of albumen. Electrolysis by long con- | tinued currents. ‘Electrol. of iodic acid. Compounds by electrol. Electrolysis of chemical compounds. The same. Platinum __ electro-metal- lurey. eae of electrolysis on iron Crystals by electrolysis. ‘Effect of electrolysis on iron. New substance by electro- lysis. Electrolysis of water. Passive iron. ‘Analysis by electrolysis. Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. Platinum electrodes. \Crystals by electrolysis. Colors by electrolysis. Electrolysis by magneto- | electricity. [Biggin metal. of zinc. Literature of Electrolysis. 1838 1889 1840 Faraday Lepage Matteucci Pasley Schénbein Schonbein Becquerel Becquerel Bottiger _|Daniell Gugegsworth Grove Jacobi J. B. Maas Matteucci Van Mons Arago Becquerel Boquillon Bottiger Boutowski Brongniart Cartwright Coulier Daniell De la Rive De Ja Rive Demidoft Dumas Elkington . Faraday Gorke ‘Phil. Mag., 8, XI, 206, 358. (Cok. VIL 420. Phil. Mag., 8, XIII, 469. Bull. Soe. ? Ind., XX XVII, 1283, iC. R., VI, 421, 277. . Phil. Mag., 3, OMI, Bill. ©. IR... VILL, 783. a VIL, 497. Ann. Ch. Pharm., X XIX, 77 Phil. Mag. 3; XV, 317; Phil. Trans., 1837. Ann. Elect., March, 1889. C. R., Vill, 802. Phil. Mag., 3, XV, 161. te 3, XIV, 446. Bull. Acad. Brus., 1, VI, 2, 438. ©. WK. WUE, ze AS @s joy, 2, LXXIV, 99. Bull. Acad. Brus., 1, if, 199. Cy IR. OX, Bie, tno, Bull. Soc. Pind., XX XIX, 407. Ce TR, OS, Pile OL, Ba, Wes Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XX XIX, 305, 339. Poge., L, 45. C. Re xe 841. oY XL 768. Ann. Elect., V, 2286. ©, IR, SOL, SBI, GBH, Phil. Mag., 8, XVII, 297, 349; Ann. Ch. Pharm., XXXVI 321; Arch. Elect. I, 594. Bull. Soe. Vind., XX XIX, 190; ae Elect., 1, 669; A. es Oy LX Xa, 398; 6. R., X, 578; XI, 25, 913. Pogg., LIV, 402. Ol, TRin4 2G BG, Ann. Ch. Pharm., XXX, 288; Phil. Mag., 38, XVII, 183. Br. Pat. Rep., 1840, 8447; Rep. of Arts, 4, XVI, 239. Lond. J., KIX, Cc: 8: ~ 63 Mech. Mag., XX XIII, 397: Ann. Electr., VII, 377: OE TRe, O0UE 636, 998. TRL 1Bte5 JUL 25, 59. [Phil. Mae., 3, XVII, 299. 319 ‘Electrolysis. Passive iron. Platinum electrodes. Passive iron. Peroxides by electrolysis. Action of peculiar currents Sulphates by electrolysis. Electrolysis of water. Electrolysis. Electrolysis of binary com- pounds. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of water. Mixed O and H by elec- trolysis. Platinum electrodes. Passive iron. Electrolysis. Electro-chemical theory. Hlectro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of silver. Electro-metallurgy. Electrol. of Mn. salts. Electro- metallurgy. The same. Electrotypes. Hlectro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of binary com- pounds. Electro-gilding. Electrodes of Pt., Ag and Cu. Electro-metallurgy. Theory of electrolysis. Electro-gilding. Electrolysis. Electro-chem. equivalents. 320 Literature of Electrolysis. Jacobi Jotard Kobell 1840 Krasner Lockett Perrott Richoux Schonbein Shore 'Solly Soyer and Ingé Spencer Sturgeon Von Kobell 1841 Arago /Barratt Becquerel | ce ‘Boquillon | Connell David Davy Anz, Polyt. J., LXXY, 110. Go TR. dG fale} Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XX XIX, 481; XL, 10. ©, IR, SUL 7, Br. Pat. Rep., 1840, 8610; Mond I.) SUR TCS Soe Mech. Mag., XXXIV, 221. Co ks) IL, MOGs Gh TL GRD; Basel. Ber., IV, 66; . Bibl. Ura, ~ 2OZOWIUUL 3HB) Pogg., L, 616; Arch. Elect. IV, 3388; Phil. Mag., 3, XVII, 2938; Proc. R. Soe. IV, 226; Edinb. N. Phil. Vo ROLIDSG, USS: Ch 1B. OX, 679; Ann. Elect., VII, 470; Nin, of, ISG, i, Ib, 43} Br. As. A. Sci,, 1840, 209. Br. Pat. Rep., 1840, 8407; Ann. Elect., VII, 38. Phil. Mag., 3, XVI, 309. (CER. 2X 292: Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 8865; Rep. of Arts, XVI, N.S8., spe Ibomel, do, Ok (Ch Sk. ; 166; Mech. Mag., XX XV, 282; Inv. Ady., V, 180: Gay isciy Mise lVeaO2)- Ann. Elect., VII, 3880; ANTM, dia SOl., il, RUG, Wa Ann. Elect., V, 484. Gel. Anz., LXXXYVIII, LXXXIX ; J. pr. Chem., XX, Nos. 3, 4; Ann. Elect., V, 198. C. R., XII, 509, 779, 957. Se eNO 6: Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 9077 ;| Rep. of Arts, XVIL N.S., 367; Mech. Mag., XXXVI, Ale broil, die5 ON, Ch IS), 438. Arch. Elect., 1, 281. Oy, Te, ROVING, enacl SWAOUL S| Ann. Elect., VI, 411. Oy Re. UU Rs ny 2 Ann. de M., III, XIX,429; Bull. Soe. ’Ind., XI, 10. Arch, Elect., I, 401; Phil. Mag., XVII, 353. (OW) IR. SOULE Waa, Applications of electrol. Electro-metallurgy. The same. The same. The same. The same. The same. Ozone by electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Precipitation of Cu. electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. The same. by Electrotypes. The same. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-metallurgy in pho- tography. Electro-met. of alloys. Electrolysis of water. Chemical force of currents Electrotypes. Electrolysis of alcohols. Electro-metallurgy. Ann. Elect., VII, 178. Electrolysis. 1841| Dent De la Rive Fizeau Grove Hunt Jordan Joule Leseuer Mallet Matteucci Melloni Moyle Parks Ruolz Soyer Soyez Sturgeon Talbot Traffant Walker 1842| Becquerel Becquerel Literature of Electrolysis. 321 Am. J. Sci., 1, XLI, 402. Arch. Elect., I, 175. C. R., XII, 401. Phil. Mag., 3, XIX, 99; XVIII, 548. Ibid., 8, XIV, 442. Ann. Elect., VIII, 289; Phil. Mag., 3. XIX, 452. Phil. Mag., 3, XIX, 265. C. R., XIII, 29. Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 9018. Arch, Elect., I, 340. C. R., XII, 219. Ann. Elect., VI, 112. Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 8905; Rep. of Arts, 4, XVII, 199. ©, IRs, SOUUG Bee, fe 787. Bull. Soe. ’Ind., XLI, 83. jAnn. Hlect., VI, 79. iBr. Pat. Rep., 1841, 9167 ; Rep. of Arts, I, E. 8., 47; Lond. J., X XI, C.§8., 357; Mech.Mag., XXXVI, 496; Eng. and Arch. J., V, 358. iC. R., XIII, 1100. \Phil. Mag., 3, XIX, 328; | Arch. Elect., Il, 466. (Oy Tie, DAYS Wire) eals SOA ee 4330> Areh: Bleck. iil: | 465. ‘Ann. Elect., TX, 491. Bilfied-Lefévre C. R., XV, 32. Boquillon * Charriére Cornay Crosse De la Rive Elkington Gann Gannal Grove Jacobi Lieson Martens G0 DONG, BUR a5 IW, 4a «XV, 678, 850. Phil. Mag., 3, X XI, 64. ‘Arch. Elect., I, 468; Ann. Elect., VIII, 216, 333. iBull. Soc. Vind, Xd; Ann. Elect., VIII, 125; Arch. Elect., JJ, 111. ee It, 236: C. R., XV, 685. 'Arch. Elect., II, 457. ee TI, 482. Br. Pat. Rep., 1842, 9374; Lond. J., X XII, C.S., 292; Mech. Mag., XXXVIII, 59; Rec. Pat. Inv., I, 358. ‘Arch. Elect., I, 558. Electro-gilding. Electrolysis by magneto- electricity. Electo-metallurgy in pho- tography. Electro-nitrogurets. Electrol. of copper salts. Electro-metallurgy. _|Heat evolved in electrol. Electro-metallurgy. Preservation of sheathing. Electrolysis. Electrotypes. The same. Electro-metallurgy. ship- Electro-gilding. Electro-silvering. Hlectrotypes. The same. Electro-metailurgy. Electro-gilding. Electro-metallurgy. Applications of electrol. Secondary products by electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. The same. The same. The same. Electrolysis of minerals. Electrol. of natural waters. Electro-metallurgy. Ozone by electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-metallurgy in pho- tography. Electro-metallurgy. The same. Electrolyses. Electrol. of silver salts. - Electrolysis of water. Electro-metallurgy. The same. Ferric acid by electrol. ,Electro-metallurgy of zine. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of zine. Electro-metallurey. Bodies preserved by elec- tro-metallurgy. Electro-metallurgy. New theory of electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of water. The same. Hlectro-metallurgy. The same, Metallic oxides by electrol. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Discussion about electrol. Ozone by electrolysis. ‘|Blectrotysis of alcohol. Heat in electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of salts. Elec. of fermented liquors. Electro-metallurgy. Bodies preserved by elec- tro-metallurey. Electro-metallurgy of Ag. - Silver-plating. Electrolysis by magneto- electricity. Electro-metallurgy in pho- 322 Literature of Electrolysis. 1842) Matteucci Ann. Elect., IX, 34. Pearson oe IX, 496. Perrot Cee Vin oO! Peyré oo ODY, 782 Jsuillll, SOe., | VInd., XLI. 55. Poggendorff Areh. Elect., ILI, 117; Ann. Elect., TX, 143. Ruolz Ch, XGIVE 252) xXeve 280 466; Bull. Soe. VInd., | XIULI, 424. Schénbein Arch. Elect., IT. 241, 509. Sorel CHR. XV 228513839) Soyer XV, 466. “ AXON Se Tuck Br. Pat. Rep., 1842, 9379; Lond. J., XXII, C. S., 458; Rec. Pat. Inv.. I, 373. BoM i2 Phil. Mag., 3, XX. 72. Von Kobell Bulls AewSer Bre wlee xen es 315; Am. J. Sci., 1, XLVIII, 222. Weber Arch. Elect., Il, 661, Wollaston Ann. Elect... IX, 518. 1843] Arago C. R., XVI, 503. Barratt Br. Pat. Rep., 1843, 9786; Lond. J., XXIV, C.8., 24. Becquerel Of Les OWANES IN) 398 JENS GG: ]Os, | 3, VIII, 402; Arch. Elect., Ill, 345; Ann. Elect., X 151. be C. R., XVII, 87, 837; Arch. Elect., III, 671. Blackwell Br. Pat. Rep:, 1848, 9041; Rep. of Arts. III, E. S., 363; Lond. J., XXVI, C. S., 16; Mech. Mag., XLII, | 108. Boquillon Crohn OVALE MOS el G3s De la Rive |Arch. Elect., III, 308; C. R., XVL 1089. aie |Arch, Elect , II, 175. OG CRS SWE 881. Dujardin Soe XGV ALTO) Hare Phi]. Mag., XXIT, 460. Hull Br. Pat. Rep., 1843, 9917. Hulot C. R., XVII, 1309. Mallet Arch. Elect., III, 661. Mourey Gh hes SOV B77. “§ Ann. d. M., 4, III, 579; C. R., XVI, 660. Paret C. R., XIV, 1001. Pelouze fe OXGVALLN (G6: tography. Literature of Electrolysis. 323 1843)Pogeendorff |Poge., LXXVI, 586. Electrol. of bismuth salts. Poole Br. Pat. Rep., 1843, 9741; Electro-metallurgy. Rep. of Arts, III, E. S., 6; Lond. J., XXIV, C. S., 14; Mech. Mag., XU, 14. Schénbein Pogg., LIX. 240; Arch. Elect. Ozone by electrolysis. : TT, 295. 1844) Becquerel C. R., XVI, 362; Arch.|Hlectrolysis. Elect., IV, 156, 224; Phil. Mag., 3, XXV, 73. es A. ce. p., 3, XI. 162. 257; Electrolysis by terrestrial Arch. Elect., IV, 557. currents. oe CAR eV Oe Métallic oxides by electrol. bo «XVIII, 449, 554, 715;/ Precipitation of metals. Arch. Elect., IV, 520. 552. Bietz Pogg., LXI, 209; Arch. Elect.|Electrolysis. LV, 276. ef Poge., LXIT, 234. Passive iron. Boquillon C. R., XIX, 440. Kiectro-metallurgy. Christofle «XIX, 405; Bull. Soc.|The same. VInd., XLIIT, 193. Connel Arch. Elect., IV, 265. Electrolysis of salts. Daniell Phil. Trans., 1844; Phil. Mag.,|Electrol. of binary com- 4, XXIV, 468; XXV, 175,| pounds. 246; Arch. Elect., IV, 289; Pogg.. LXIV. 18. De la Rive Arch. Elect., IV, 454. Ozone by electrolysis. ‘Desbordeaux jC. R., XIX. 1450. Silver-plating. Elkington Arch. Elect., IV, 515. Electro-metallurgy. ‘Fontaine- Br. Pat. Rep., 1844, 10282. |Electro-met. of alloys. moreau \Joule Phil. Mag., 3, XXIV, 106. Intermittent currents in 3 electrolysis. ‘Hull Dingl. J., XCIV, 388. Electrolysis of wine. Kobell Arch. Elect., IV, 584. Electro-metallurgy. ‘Levol CG. BR., XVILL, 708, 837. Precipitation of metals. Louyet “¢ XIX, 1180. Zine-piating. ‘Martens Pogs. LXI, 121. Passive iron. Matteucci ALC Paya; 22: Electrolysis. Napier . Phil. Mag., 3, XXV, 379. Electrolysis of double cya- nides. Nouailher Bull. Soe. lInd., XLIII, 54;'Electro-metallurgy. . XLY, 298. Schoénbein Arch. Elect., IV, 333. Ozone by electrolysis. ‘Smee ae IV, 648. Vheory of electrolysis. 1845 Avogadro A. ec. p., 3, XIV, 330; Mem.|Electro-chemical series. Acad. Sci. Turin, If, VILLI. Becquerel C. B., XX, 1509; Arch. Elect.,|Hlecirolysis by terrestrial V, 233. currents. fi MAerelpi 3. MEL, 246: Electrolysis. Bietz Pogg., LXIII. 415. Passive iron. '\Christofle CHR exexad 1382: Electro-metallurgy. Church Br. Pat. Rep.. 1845, 11010. |Electrolysis of coke. Dechaud CG. R.. XX, 1659, 1712; XXI,/Extraction of Cu from 278; Bull. Soc. VInd.,| minerals. XLIV, 207, 271. 'De la Rive (Ch Tita, DOS PEN Ozone by electrolysis. B24 Literature of Electrolysis. 1845)De la Rive Arch. Elect., V, 845; Chem.|Structure of metals depo- Soc. Mem., II, 300; Phil.| sited by electrolysis. Mag., 3, XX VII, 15; Am. J. Sci., 1, XLIX, 390. Desbordeaux |C. R., XX, 108, 248, 353;/Silver-plating. XXI, 162. Jacobi Arch. Elect., V, 184. Electro-metallurgy. Hunt Chem, Soc. Mem., II, 319. |Actinic influence on elec- — trolysis. Millon Arch. Hlect., V, 303. Electrolysis of water. Napier Chem. Soc. Mem., II, 158,/Decomposition of double 200; Arch. Elect., V, 159;| cyanides. Phil. Mag., X XVI, 211. Normand Br. dIny., fI, 248. Gilding on silver. Parkes Br. Pat. Rep., 1845, 10860;|Electro-metallurey. Rep. of Arts, VII, E. 8., 308. Perrot CAR OxXd328) The same. Philippe Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XLIV, 218;)/The same. SILA, ali Rivier Arch. Elect., V, 24. Ozone by electrolysis. Pouillet C. R., XX, 1544. Electrolysis. Roseleur Br. d’'Inv., V, 128. Gilding. Ruolz C. R., XXI, 1487. Electro-metallurgy. Schonbein Poge., LXY, 161; Arch.|Ozone by electrolysis. Hlect., V, 11, 337; Br. A. A. Sci., 1845, 91. Soyer Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XLIV, 88.|Electro-metallurgy. Tourasse (Gy It, SOM) Biileh Mirrors silvered by elec- f trolysis. Williamson Chem. Soc. Mem., II, 805;/Ozone by electrolysis. ‘ Phil. Mag., XX VII, 372; Arch. Elect., V, 188. 1846) Barral C. R., XXIII, 35. Electro-gilding. Becquerel ‘XXII, 781; Ding]. J.,/Electrolysis of minerals. CI, 267. Boch Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XLV, 97. |Hlectro-metallurgy. Boquillon Ca Re, SOX 85a; The same. Hankel (Pogs., LXIX, 268. Electrolysis of salts. Howell .Br. Pat. Rep., 1846, 11065;!Electro-metallurgy of Pt. I Jeti, day, lly YS). Hulot ‘Bull. Soc. VInd., XLVI,/Electro-metallurgy. 572. Lemercier Br. d’Iny., VI, 209. The same. Matteucci IAG CEs Suon DOVE Oe Electro-chemical action. Napier Phil. Mag., 3, X XIX, 92. /Theory of electrolysis. Perrot Cos, REX Gi: Electro-metallurgy. Paget ‘Br, Pat. Rep., 1846, 11448; The same. Rep. of Arts, X, 83, E. 8.; Ibomvel, ds, CRO CL Ish. 417; Pat. J. II, 885; Eng. & Arch. J., X, 292. Ramont Bred: Inve ay Weill, Electro-metallurgy of Ag. Woilley C. R., XXII, 924. Hlectrotyping. ‘W ood Sci. Amer., XII, 142. Hlectro-metallurgy. Barral C. R., XXYV, 556, 602, 760. | Priority in electro-gilding. 4 Literature of Electrolysis. 325 1847-Beequerel C. R., XXIV, 505. Electrolysis. Bouquillon BOT SONY PAU Priority in electrotyping. Boutellier Br. dIny.; XI, 201. Electro-metallurgy of Ag. Coblentz OL Uns ROLY. Bt. Electro-plating. Crosse Br. Pat. Rep., 1847, 11604. |Electrolysis of liquors. Delaurie Ci RL, XOX, 975: Precipitation of metals. DelaSalzede |Br. Pat. Rep., 1847, 11878;|Electro-metal. of bronze. Rep. of Arts, XI, E. S., 293; Lond. J., XXXII, CH S25 260s Pater se VE 505; Eny. & Arch. J., XI, 169. Garson C. R., XXIV, 466. ‘|Applications of electrol. Grove WN, dle Ol, 2 IOV, 4ahil Effect of area of electro- lyte. Kolbe Ann. Pharm., LXIV, 286. |Electrol. of organic bodies. Kroening C. R., XXV, 818. Silk gilded. Maas Bull. Ac. Sci., Brus., XIV,|Passive iron. 2, 10. Osann Pogg., LX XI, 458; LX XII,|Ozone by electrolysis. 468. Perrot C. R., XXV, 347, 428. Priority in electro-gilding. Rochas G6 SOK, Biles Electro-plating. Ruolz “¢ — X XV, 555, 602. Priority in electro-gilding. Sainte-Preure PP XONGIV lila 8 Electro-gilding. Santayra Br. dInv., XII, 384. Electro-metallurgy. Woilley Cy Be, ROWS 1, The same. 1848 Clement Br. Pat. Rep., 1848, 12885. |Electrolysis of sugar. Junot Br. d’Inv., XIII, 1. Hlectro-gilding. Napier Chem. Soc. Mem., III, 47. |Theory of electrolysis. Osann Poge., LXXV, 386. Ozone by electrolysis. Poitevin C. R., XXVI, 346. Electro-metal. of bronze. Rivot Bull. Soc. VInd., XLVII,'Electrolysis of minerals 356. of Cu. Woilley C. R., XX VI, 506, 573. Electro-metallurgy. | ? Bull. Soc. Vind., XLVII,'Electro-metal. of bronze. 260. 1849 Becquerel A. c. p., 8, XXVIII, 5; J.|Theory of electrolysis. pr. Chem., XLVIII, 193; C. R., XXVIII, 650; JB., 1849, 201. Bonis C. R., XXIX, 403. Electrolysis. Fontaine- Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12523; Electro-metal. of brass. moreau| Mech. Mag., LJ, 284; Pat. Vo JOS 0. Kolbe Ann. Chem. Ph., LXIX,|Electrolysis of organic 257, 279; J. pr. Chem.,| bodies. SING wails GIB alse 558; 1849, 335. Parkes Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12334; Electro-metal. of alloys. Rep. of Arts, XIV. E. 8., 361; Mech. Mag., LI, 309; Pat. J., VIII, 42. Poggendorff j{Arch. ph. nat,, X, 133. Electrolysis of bismuth. Poncil Br. @Iny., XIV, 213. Gilding on zine. 326 Literature of Electrolysis. * 1849} Russell Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12526 ;|Hlectro-metallurgy of al- Rep. of Arts, XV, HE. 8.,| loys. 163 ; Mech. Mag., LI, 285; Pat. J., 1X, 70. Schénbein Poge., LX XVIII, 289; Arch.|Theory of electrolysis. ph. nat., XIII, 192; JB., 1849, 201. Smith Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12654;|Electro-metallurgy of Ag. Mech. Mag., LI, 571; Pat. J., VIII, 22 2 Sci. Amer., V, 140. Electrotyping. 1850; Avogadro A. c. p., 8, XXIX, 248 ;/Electro-chemical series. MemiyAce Scr iurinyer2: ae Becquerel C. R., XXXII, 83. Electrolysis influenced by light. Brazier Ann. Pharm., LXXYV, 265;/Electrol. of organic acids. JB., 1850, 399. Lanaux Br. d@Inv., XVI, 270. Electro-metallurgy of Pt. Lefévre sie XVIII, 318. E'ectro-metallurgy. Matteucci (Ce Ii, SOKOTUL, 14's. E ectrolysis of salts. Roseleur Br. Pat. Rep., 1850, 18020;/Hiectro-metallurgy of Sn. Mech. Mag. , LIT, 250; Pat. J., IX, 296. Steele Br. Pat. Rep., 1850, 138216 ;)Electro-metall. of alloys. Mech. Mag., ive 134; Pat. J.; X, 220. Ward Rev. Sci. (SOOaDS 34, Electro-metallurgy. 1851|Becquerel AX ©, Dre 3 XXXII, 645. |Hlectrol. effected by light. eS C. R., XXXIV, 29. Minerals by electrolysis. Bouillet A. c. p., 8, XXXIV, 153;/Electrolysis of double cya- C. R., XXXII, 618 ;;| nides. XXXIV, 193, 282. Brooman Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 13845. |Electrolysis of organic matter. Carptier Br. d’Inv., XXIV, 178: Electro-metallurey. Cowper Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 13513;/Gutta-percha in electro- Mech. Mag., LV, 158;)/ typing. Pat. J., XI, 279) Delamotte |Br. @ Inv. ; KOON: 167. _|Electro silvering. Delisle | Xavi 70! Electro-metallurgy. Fremy and IC. R. , XXXIV, 379; A.c. p.,|Electrolysis. Becquerel] 8, XXXV, 62; J.. pr. Chem., Laie 134: Ann. Pharm., LXXXIV, 204; Phil. Mag., 4, ae sles J. Chem. Soc., V, 2 Knoblouet Rev. Sci., XXIX, 368. Electro-metallurgy. * Matteucci VANS G5. 10s, Bs KOR RIV, 281;/Electro-chemical combi- CRUE PRGRONGIIE 663. nations. Palmer Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 18726;/Gelatine moulds in elec- Mech. Mag., LVI, 197. trotyping. Ruolz C. R., XXXIV, 248. Hlectioly a of double cya- nides. Thompson Phil. Mag., 4, IT, 429. Mechanical theory of elec- trolysis. Literature of Hlectrolysis. 1852 Thomas Vigau Watt Almeida Becquerel Bell Bunsen Despretz Elkington |Erckmann ‘Foucault | Gmelin \Helle 'Hulot Jamin © Junot | Leblane ‘Lebas |Morris Paradis ‘Petrie ‘Power Ridgway | Roberts Roux ‘Soret i { C. R., XXXIV, 556, 580: Chem. Gaz., 1852, 415. CRE PNORONGIV iad Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 18750. C. R., XXXYVIII, 682; Instit., 1854, 119; J. pr. Chem., LXII, 129. C. R., XXXYV, 129, 647: AN ©. Jos 44 BORO IOL, 385; Arch. ph. nat., X XI, 227, JB., 1852, 6. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14185; Rep. of Arts, 21, E. S., 32; Mech. Mag., LVIII, 18. Ann. Pharm., LXXXII, 137; Pogg., XCII, 648; JB., 1852, 362. CG, TR, XOXO; WING BOR s Arch. ph. nat., XXVI, 138; JB., 1852, 258. Sci. Amer., VIII, 402. Br. d@Inv., XXIV, 307. Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 180; Insite lal C hie XXXVII, 580; Phil. Mag. 4, VII, 426: JB., 1852, 258. Ann. Pharm., LXXXII, 289; Pharm. Centrl., 1852, 385. Br. dIny., XXII, 334. C. R., XXXV, 867. « XXXVIII, 390, 443: Instit., 1854, 91; Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 275, 380; Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 526; JB., 1852, 257. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 1183. CO. TR, Sexo wane Instit., 1854, 92: JB., 1852, 257. Br. d’'Inv., XXII, 288. 2h XXVIIL, 50; Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 1032. Br. dInyv., XXII, 3806. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14346. Br. dInv., XXIII, 221, 224. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14080; Mech. Mag., LVII, 374. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14198. Br. VInv., XXIV, 222. ©. R., XX XIX, 504; Instit., 1854, 92 and 822; Arch. ph. nat., XXVIII; A. ¢. p., 8, XLIU, 257; JB., 1852, 206. Electro-silvering. Electrolysis of water. ‘Separation of metals. Electrolysis of salts. Electrolysis of hydrogen. ‘Electrolysis of H. SO.. Electrolysis of Mg. Electrolysis. Electrotypes. Metals applied to fabrics. Electrolysis. Electrolysis in analysis. Electro-silvering. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of water. Electro-metall. of Cr and Mg. Electrolysis of water. Gilding on iron. Electro-metallurgy. The same. The same. Electro-metallurgy of Ag. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of sugar. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of Cu salts. 328 Literature of Electrolysis. 1852 1853 Soret Symonds Viard Wall Watson Becquerel Bishop Bolley Buff Bussey Davy Delamotte De Medeiros Fremy and Becquerel Gore Gourlier Grove Guthrie Hittorf Hulot Kard Masse Masson Muiis Nickles Pershouse Prax Shepard Tourniére 9 2 C. R., XX XVIII, 445; Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 175, 268; Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 459; J. pr. Chem., LXII, 40; JB. ,-1852, 257. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 996. PNG Os Oey oy 2OSOOVIL, WY) Arch. ph. nat., X XI, 230. Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 576. ce iad 575. A.c. p., 3, XXXIX, 48. C. R., XXXVI, 209; Bibl. Univ., N.8., 1, 155; JB., 1853, 8. Br. d’Inv., X XIX, 182. Sci. Amer., IX, 96; Chem. Gaz., 1853; 354; Pharm. J. Drans:, XU 230. Ann. Pharm., LXXV, 1; Arch, ph. nat,, XXII, 344; Chem. Soc. Q. J., IV, 47; Am. J. Sci., 2, XV, 426; J. B., 1854, 280. C. R., XXXVI, 540. Bibl. Univ., N. 8., 1, 165; Bie, Gl hay) OID XXXII, 321. Br. Pat. Rep., 1858, 1789. 181 : Quem, di, S@b, We Bee de Pharm., XX XI, 320. Pharm. J. Trans., XIII, 21 Br. d’Inv., XX VII, 332. Phil. Mag., 4, V, 201. Arche phe mats) XOX Ss vale Ann. Pharm., XCIX, 64; JB., 1858, 573. Pogg., LXXXIX, 177; JB., 1854, 279. C. R., XX XVII, 409. Phil. Mag., 4, VI, 241. Ipe, Cb, KOO, UGH, ae NOXONGIUO ete Phil. Mag., 4, VI, 457. Br. dInv., XX XI, 154. Arch. ph. nat., XXIV, 79; C. R., Aug., 1853. Br, Pat. Rep., 1853, 2379. Br. dInv., XXVIII, 412. Br. Pat. Rep., 1853, 1591. ce ce ee 1641. J. Fr. Inst., 3, XX VI, 187. Sci. Amer., IX, 21. Electrolysis. Cleaning metal surfaces. ‘Electrol. of oxygen. Electrolysis of H2S0O.. Pigments by electrolysis. Electrolysis of gases. Electrolysis of minerals. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electro-plating. Laws of electrolysis. Electrol. of Si, Ti, Mg. Preservation of ship- sheathing. Silvering. Preservation of ship- sheathing, Electrolysis. Electro-metallic deposi- . tion. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of salts. Electrolysis of organic bodies. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of water. Electro-silvering. Electro-metallurgy of Au. Electro-metallurgy. Passive Ni and Co. Electro-metal. of alloys. Electro-gilding. . Electrolysis of water. Manufacture of Naz COs. Electro-plating on china. Electrotyping. \ Literature of Electrolysis. 1854; Almeida Becquerel Black Bocquet Boucher Buff ce Bull Bunsen Callau Coblence Connell Daniel De la Rive Denny Dida Dumas Foucault 6é ce Gervaisot Gore Gmelin Harrison Jamin Johnson Leblane C.R., XX XVIII, 682; Arch. ph. nat., XXIX, 5; JB., 1855, 229. C. R., XXXVIII, 1095; Chem. Gaz., 1854, 359; Arch. ph. nat., XX VI, 270; Dinel., J.,. CX XXIII, 213. (Oo 18g SOO ADUL, Peariay eal Mag., 4, VIII; Am. J. Sci., 2, XVIII, 382. Ding]. J., CX XXII, 31. Br. dInv., XXXV, 293. ue XL, 94. Ann. Pharm,, LXXXV, 1; J. Chem. Soc., VI, 54. Ann. Pharm., LX XXVIII, 117; Instit., 1854, 80; JB., 1854, 281. Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 65; Ann. Pharm., LXX XVII, 117. Oc ae penile 1619! Ay Tex py, 3, XLII, 854; J. Pharm., 3, XXV; JB., 1854, 320, Cae heii. Pore: XCII, 648; J. Pharm., 3, OWI BES Dadi dls, CXXXIII, 273. Phil: Maeg., 4, VIL, 73s J. Fr. Inst., 3, XXVIII, 208, 336. C. R., XX XIX, 846. Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 426. Porg. LXIV, 18; JB., 1854, 278. Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 275. Br. Pat. Rep., 1854, 478. Br. d’Inv., XX XIX, 79. C. R., XX XVIII, 444 Arch, ph. nat., XXIV, 268; Instit., 1854, 36; JB., 1854, 281. C. R., XX XVII, 580; Instit., 1853, 349; JB., 1854, 281. -|Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 180. Br. dInv., XXXIV, 248. J. Fr. Inst., 3, XXVII, 353; J. Pharm., 3, XXV, 475. Pogg., XLIV, 27; JB., 1854, 278. Br. Pat. Rep., 1844, 1714. C. R., XX XVIII, 390, 448; Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 298; Arch. ph. nat., X XV, 880. Br. Pat. Rep., 1854, 1471. C. R., XX XVIII, 444; Phil. Mag., 4, VIII, 287. 329 Electrolysis of salts. Electrolysis of minerals of Ag, Pb, Cu. Electrolysis in chemical action. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. ee oe ce Zn. Laws of electrolysis. The same. Electrolytic researches. Electrol. of Mn and Cu. Electrolysis of the alka- line earths. Electrolysis of water. Electro-metallurgy. Elecirolysis of water. Electrolysis of salts. Electrolysis of water. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. oe oe ce Zn. Electrolysis of water. Electrolysis. Theory of electrolysis. Electrolysis of water. Electro-metallurgy Electrolysis of Al and Si. Electrolysis of salts. Pigments by electrolysis. Electrolysis of water. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electrolysis of water. 1854 | 1855 electro-metall. Literature of Llectrolysts. Lenoir Br. dInv., XX XVIII, 119 ;'Electro-metallurgy. | XXXIV, 340. Marignac A. c¢. p., 8, XXXVIII, 148;/Heat in electrolysis. J. Chem. Soc., 1854, 260. Matteucci C. R., XX XIX, 258. Electrol. in chem. action. Meideck Br. @Inv., XX XVIII, 186. |Electro-metallurgy. Meidinger iJ. Chem. Soc., VII, 251. Se electrolysis. of : SOs. Osann J. de Pharm., XXVI, 68. | Electrolysis of oxygen. Peyraud ans dTny., LOCC tl Electro-silvering. |Person i XXXIV, 122. |Electro-metallurgy of Zn. /Regnault © R., XX XIX, 847. Gutta-percha in electro- | typing. Soret \C. R., XXXIX, 504; A. c. p.,|Hlectrolysis of Cu salts. | ee; Soe 207; Arch. ph. | nat., XXVII, 113. on ‘Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 175,|Electrolysis of water. | 268 ; Ann. Pharm., LXXXVIII, 57. Toussaint Br. d’Inv., XXXVI, 324. Electro-metallurgy. /Van Breda Phil. Mag., 4, VIII, 465. Electrolysis of liquids. \Vergnesand C. R., XL, 2385, 832, 961;) Extraction of metallic par- Poey Arch. ph. nat., XXVIII, ticles in the organism | | 208; Sci. Amer., XI, 251. | by electrolysis. Viard PACE CETDseios XUII, 5: Arch, Electrolysis of oxygen. | ph. nat., XX VII, 308. Waegstaffe Br. Pat. Rep., 1854, 1653. |Electrolysis of ores, ead ers Arch. ph. nat., XX VI, 134. |Electrolysis of water. Becquerel ©. R., XL, 1844; A. c. p. 3,/Electrolysis of liquids in |e Ska; 401 ; aes ph. motion. nat., XXX, | oC (Cuts Soe 95 Blecteolgee in the earth. ‘Beetz , Poge. XCIV, 194. Electrolysis. ‘Briant ‘Chem. Gaz., 1850, 153. Electro-metallurgy. ‘Bory Br. dInv., XLVIII, 230. Electro-gilding. Butt ‘Ann. Pharm., XCVI, 257;|/Electrolysis of water. Areh.) phe) nate) XOXONTe 198; JB., 1853, 233. # Ann. Pharm., XCIY, 1, 22;/Electrolysis of salts. | Areh. ph, nat., XoXTX | 118: JB, 1855, 239. ue ‘Ann. Pharm., XCIIL, 256. |Electrolysis of water. Canot (Br. @Inv., XLVI, 29. Electro-gilding. Chaudron os XLIX, 335. Baths for \Decq SS XLY, 259. Electro-metallurgy of Ag. Deiss of XLIV, 329. Electro-metallurgy of Zn. Derincenzi (Cr Re XG 782) 1226. Hlectrotyping. Elkington Nene Eat Rep., 1855, 1548. |Electro-metallurgy. Fremy 6. 1e5, OG), 966: Chem. Gaz.,|Electrolysis of fluorides. | 1855, 207. Gaugain iC. R., Dec. 24, 1855. Polarization of electrodes. Gedge ‘Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 1956. | Electro-metallurgy. Gore ‘Pogg. ; XOV, 173; Phil. Electrolysis of Sb. | Mag.,4, 1X, 73; J. Pharm., 3, TOWEL 2838; JB., 1855, 382. Literature of Electrolysis. 331 1855 1856 Gore Gueyton Haltheisen Hulot Johnson Jewreinoft Landois Lesieur « Matthiessen Osann Oudry Pilloy Petiejean Rigondeau Riemann Soret Souehier Schoénbein Tailfer Taylor Thomas Vannier Watt Andrews Becquerel Beetz Beslay Buff Burel Calvert Cowper Chailley De la Rive Pharm. J., Trans., 464, 154. C. R., XL., 12380. JB,, 1855, 324. \ C. R., XLI, 156. Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 18. Chem. Gaz., 1855, 458. C. R., XLI, 178; Br. d’Inv., XLVITII, 288. eee dInv., XLII, 312. 5 Chem. Soc., VIII, 27; Ann. Pharm., *XOIII, O77: A. ¢. p., 3, xb, 60, 401; Chem. Gaz., J.pr. Chem., Chem. Soc. Q. 294; JB., 1855, 328. Pogg., XOV, 311. ‘Br. d'Inv., LIL, 356. Waeae XLV, 282. XLIX, ee a XLVIIL, 2 Page. XCV, 180. Phil. Mag. ‘ 4, X, 210; Arch. ph. nat., YORI, 2655 C. | R., XL, 220. Br. d’Inv., XLIV, 301. J. pr. Chem., LXV, 129. Br. d'Inv., XLVIL, 221. Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 1997. ee 1855, 258 ; | 2756. ‘Br. d’Inv., XLIII, 265. Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 272. (Rep. Br. Assoc., | Pogg., XCIX, 493; ae | 1856, 369 ; A. c. lab, 124; JB., 1856, Ba. iC. R., XLII, 621. ‘Arch. ph. nat., XXXV, 281; | C. R., XLII, 1101. ‘Pogg., XCVIL. C. R., XLII, 657, 853. ‘Ann. Ch. Pharm., CI, 1 | Arch. ph. nat., | 204; JB., 1856, 244. Br. ‘Pat. Rep., 1856, 734. fs 1856, 3. ‘s a 1856, 2992. Br. dInv., LVII, 485. | XLII, 710 J. Pharm., 3, XXVII, 475: 1855, 232: LXIV, 508 : Soavalila 1855 ; Poge. XCIX, 626; C. R., Dil Te Rules | of electro-metal- lurgy. Blectro- metallurgy. Ann. ’Pharm., XCIV, 107; Electrolysis of Li. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electro-metallurgy of Pt. Electro-gilding. Hlectrotyping. the al- ; Electrolysis of kaline metals. Electrolysis of hydrogen. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electro silvering on glass. Electro-gilding Theory of Nobili’s rings. Laws of electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis. Hlectro-metallurgy. Hlectro-metallurgy of Al. ;|Electro-metal. of alloys. Electro-gilding. Hlectro-metallurgy of Zn. Electrolysis of water. EHlectro-metallurgy. Electrolysis with weak currents. Theory of Nobili’s rings. Autotypes. ;Hlectrol. of chromic acid. NOON, Manuf. of Prussian blue. Electrolysis of ores. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electro-gilding. _ Electrolysis of water. B32 Literature of Electrolysis. 1856| Delmas Br. @Inv., LIV, 394. Electro-metal. of gold. Despretz C. R., XLII, 707. Electrolysis of water. Dufresne Br. dInv., LY, 141. Electro-gilding and_ sil- vering. Gaensly “ LVIL, 428. Electro-gilding. George C. R., XLII, 20. Electro-metallurgy. Geuther Ann. Pharm., XCIX, 314; Electrol. of chromic acid. Arch. ph. nat., XX XIII, 228; JB., 1856, 243. Gore J. Pharm., 3, X XIX, 363;|Electrolysis of Fe and Sn. Jeneyeam, dj, “Whe, DV, 357. Guérin C. R., XLII,” 808; Arch.|Electro-gilding. ph. nat., XXXIV, 282. Gueyton (CARS Nene 9 oe pili Electro-metallurgy. Guthrie Ann. Pharm., XCIX, 64. |Hlectrolytic experiments. Hamel Br. d’Inv., LV, 62. Hlectro-metallurgy. Hittorf Pogg. XOVIIL 1, 177. Analysis by electrolysis. Kolrausch Pogg., XCVII, 397, 559;|Measure: of electrolytic JB., 1856, 239. force. Lautépin Br. @Iny., LVI, 84. Silvering on wood. Lenoir C. R., XLII, 415, 476, 618;) Electro-metallurgy. Arch. ph. nat., XXXII, 219. Magnus Berl. Acad. Ber., 1856, 188 ; Electrolyticinvestigations. C. C., 1856, 338; J. pr. Chem., LX VIII, 54; Phil. Mag., 4, XII, 157; Arch. ph. nat.) XXXII, 327; . JB., 1856, 239. Osann J. pr. Chem., LXVI, 258;Gypsum moulds in elec- Pogg. XCVI, 498; XCVII,| trotyping. Bre Adel, ole TBM. XXXI, 342. Oudry Br. dInv., LIV, 219; C. R.|Electro-metallurgy of Fe. XLII, 1144, 1174; XLII, 42, 110. Regnault C. R., XLVI, 852. Electrolysis of Mg. Schénbein Pharm. J. Trans., XV, 513.|/Heat and electrolysis. Sorel A.c. p., 8, XLV, 11, 119. |Electrolysis of water. Soret Arch. ph. nat., XX XI, 204./The same. Van Breda Arch. ph. nat., XX XITI,|Electrolysis. ye 1etoyere., (Oj il4ig)e “ds18. 1856, 289. Wiedemann |Poge., XCIX, 177; Arch.|Electrolysis of salts. ph. nat., XX XIII, 177. Willigen Pogg., XCVIII, 511; A. c¢.|Ozone by electrolysis. p., L, 126. ? J. pr. Chem., LXVII, 178. |Electrolysis of water. ? J. Fr. Inst.,"8, XX XI, 412. |Photo-galvanic process. ? iY 3, XX XI, 115.|Electro-chem. engraving. 1857| Almeida AGEs DP. Mulle panne Electrolysis of salts. Baumert Ann. Pharm., CI, 88. Ozone by electrolysis. Becker Br. Pat. Rep., 1857, 1274. |Silvering organic bodies. Beequerel Cok., XG, 938. Electrolysis with weak currents. 1858 Literature of Hlectrolysis. Berlin Bosscha Breda Carpentier Clausius Coulson Cowper Despretz Dupré Garnier Geuthier Gorde Hittorf Kobell Magnus Miller Moigno Newly Noualhier Palagi Peil Schlagden- hauffen| Sinsteden Walenn Beslay Bottger ce Brionde Buff ee Clausius C. B.,, XLIV, 1273; XLV, 82. Pogg., CI, 517; CIII, 487; CV, 396; eave. Ds 3, TRV, 367; Arch. ph. nat. ENO PaP tL 361. Pogg. XCLX, 634. Br. dInv., XXXIV, 407. Pogg., Cl, 338. Br. ‘Pat. Rep., 1857, 2074. 18a A180: C. R, XLV, 449. i XLIV, 1009; Phil. Mag., 4, XIV, 75. |Arch. ph. nat., XX XV, 98. Br. d@’Inv., LXI, 174. |Am. J. Sei, 2, XXVIII, 281. ‘Br. P. Rep., 1857, 8877. Pose. C1H, ile JB., 1857, 27. J. pr. Chem., LXXI, 146; ' Chem. Gaz., 1857, 437. Pes. CII, 1; Ann. Pharm. 3, LU, 345; Arch. ph. | nat., XXXVI, 300; ‘Ci- | mento, VII, 56;- C. (Op, | 1857, 954; JB., 1857, 53; | Am. i Sci., 2, XXV, 98; A. ©. Ole 912. ‘Br. A. a ’Sci., 1851, 158. Edinb. N. Phil. Te INS Sis | VI, 306. ‘Br. Pat. Rep., 1857, 3115. | if 1857, 5. ler. @Inv., LXIII, 919. \Chem. Gaz., 1857, 220. J. Pharm., 3, XXXI, 410; JB., 1857, 57. Rove, Chal (Br. Pat. Rep., 1857, 1840. iBr. dInv., LXVIII, 264; | Br. Pat. Rep., 1859, 108. ‘Poge., CIV, 292: J. T. 3 | pert. Chin., I, 56. ‘J. pr. Chem., "‘LXXIII, 494. iBr. d@Inv., LXVI, 206. |Ann. Pharm., CV, 145 Tas Gs ]9e oy LLIDAG Te Ann. Pharm., CVI, 208. Pogg. CIII, 525; Phil. Mag., | 4, XIV, 94; JB., 1858, 27° Chem., LX XIII, 484; Re- ‘Platinum electrodes. ; Mechanical theory of elec- trolysis. Electrolysis of water. Electro-metallurgy. Condition of electrolytes. ‘Electro-metal. of Au. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis of Pb. salts. Electrolysis. Electrolysis of salts. Electro-metallurey. Electrolysis of waters. Electro-metal. of alloys. Analysis by electrolysis. Electrol. of chromic acid. , Electrolysis of salts. Researches in electrolysis. Electrotypes. Electro-metallurgy of Sn. Hlectro-metallurgy. Gilding on wood. Shellac moulds in electro- typing. ; Electrolysis of salts. Electrolysis by- magneto- electricity. Electro-metall. of alloys. Ge yt ZAnly fein, 1210s Electrolysis of Sb. H NO; by electrolysis. Gilding on zinc. ;|A. study of electrolytes. Movements in the elec- trolyte. Electrolysis. Literature of Electrolysis. 1859) 58|Corbelli Fonvielle Gore Grove Jacquin Kérikuff Liebig ‘Linnemann ‘Magnus Munro Nezeraux Osann Perrot Quit Re gnault Riche Shepard Weiske | Wiedemann | | | Wiedemann ‘Wild W ittich 9 Barre Becquerel Brewster Bosscha ce Bradbury ‘Butt | 'Clausius Br. Pat. Rep., 1858, 507. C. R., XLVII. 149. Phil. Mag., 4, XVI, 441; JIB. iets, Ue Phil. Mag., 4, XVI, 426. Br. P. Rep., 1856, 667. (On Ri SIUWAIUL, BBue Br. d’Inv.; LXVI, 405. J. pk: Chem., at 415; JB., 1858, 116. Poge., CIV, D900. Br. ~d’'Inv., LXIX, AAD... BG LXVI, 206. Roce S Cie iGi1G Cs 7c: 1858, 145; JB., 1858, 25. Cake BAT 180: IE WAUL | 351 : Arch. ph. nat., ENG EA lee8: iC. R., XLVI, 903; Arch. ph. nat., [N. P.], II, 262. PURI, JONG raat, [PN le], OL, 160; C. R., XLVI, 852. KCB lesa Obs aut) S Jeol Mag., 4, XV, 328. Br. Pat. Rep., 1858, 353. Pogg., CII, 466; JB., 1858, 27. Pogg. CIV, 162; JB., 1858, 27. Roger XCIXG 77 Aven ps 3, LII, 224. Poge. CII, 204; Arch. ph. nat. 5 (Ne Lee 1h, II, 378. Ve ovr ‘Chem., JB., 1858, 541. Sci. Amer., XIV, 4. Br. d@’Inv., LX XIII, 182. Mem. de l’Ac., XXVII, 2°. JB., 1859, 86. Poge., CVIII, 312. Poge., CV, 896; Arch. ph./] nat. {INOPs | Vilas oo°?) JaeEreinsts ise OXexexevalile 344. Ann. Pharm., CX, 267 1859, 686; Phil. Mag., 4, XVIII, 394; A.c. p., 8, LIX, 120; JB., 1859, 39; Arches ple maltees Nees» IX, 134. Arch. phasnate Neely; 242. : | Cr 2: | ibe Oe 18; Chem. News, IJ, 23; Electro-metallurgy of Al. Electrolysis of water. ag of Sb. Light and electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Electrolysis of alkaline solutions. Electro-plating on glass. Electrolysis of K. Indirect electrolytic action Electro-metallurgy of Sn. Electro-metallurgy. ,|Electrolysis of salts. Effect of electric spark on alcohol and water vapor. Electrolysis of gases by the spark. Electro-chemical equiva- lent of Mg. Electrolysis of Br, CI, I. Electro-metallurgy of Ag. Chlorine by electrolysis. Electrolysis. Motion of liquids in elec- trolysis. Electrolysis of concen- trated solutions. Electrol. of organic bodies, Electrolysis. Decoration metallurgy. Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. Electrol. of organic acids, Heat in electrolysis. Mechanical theory of elec- trolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Zn. by electro- ;'Electrolysis of the higher compounds. | Study of electrolytes. Literature of Electrolysis. 339 | { . 1859 Friedel Ann. Pharm., CXII, 376. — Electrolysis of water, Geuther Cis 129; JB. of H. SOx. 1859, 82: Chem. Gaz., 1859. 289; ae ph. nat. | NESE: I V,7 Hittort \Poge., CVI, 337° 513. Electrolysis. Meydinger J. Pharm., 3, OGY, 76. Electro-metallurgy. Morren C. R., XLVIITI, 342. Electrolysis of gases. Newton Br. Pat. Rep., 1859, 1045. | Nitric acid by electrol. Perrot C. R., XLIX, 37; Arch. ph.|Electrodes in sulphate of nat. [N. P.], IV, 186; VY,!| copper voltameters. 267 ; Phil. Mag., Dec., 1858. * On) Tey. LEX, 204; Arch. Electrolysis by the spark. ph. nat. [N. Pl, VI, 66. Schmidt Poge., CVII, 556. Electrolysis of H2 SO,. Schonbein J. pr. Chem., LX XVITI, 63; Polarization of oxygen Pogg. Ann., CVIII, 471;| during electrolysis. : A.c. p., LVII, 484. Wiedemann |Pogg., XCIX, 281. Electrol. of binary salts. ame J. a Inst., 3, XX XVIII, Durability of electrotypes. 124. 2 J. Fr. Inst., 3, XX XVII, /Electro-metallurgy of Zn. B44. ? Sci. Amer., 2, I, 275. Roses by light- ning. ? Rep. Chim. App., I, 419. Gutta- “percha in electro- typing. 1860) Almeida C. R., LI, 214; Chem. News, Beso vsis of a mixture II, 144. of H NO; and alcohol. Bethnoud U.S. Pat. Rep., 1860, 30663. Electro-metall. of alloys. Buff Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], LX,|Electrolytic studies. 107. Coleman Chem. News, I, 242. ‘ apparatus. E. G. 3 I, 204, 216. |Electrol. of nitrogen com- pounds. Gore Phil. Mag., 4, XXII, 555; Musical sounds. by elec- Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.],| trolysis. VIII, 323. Grove Phil. Mag., 4, XX, 126;/Transmission of electro- A. c. p., 3, LXI, 156;) ‘lysis across glass. Arches phe nats NE VIII, 330. Hoffmann J. Chem. Soc., XII, 278. Electrolysis of gases. Hughes Br. Pat. Rep., 1860, 1885. | Electro-metall. of alloys. Kolbe Ann. Pharm., CXIII, 244; Electrolysis of organic JB., 1860, 245. bodies. Lerret Cais elin o60) Electro-metallurgy. Person \Chem. News, II, 275. Electro-metallurgy of Zn. Perrot Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], XI,|Electrolysis by the in- 232; A.c.p., 8, LXI, 161,| duction spark. Piffard Chem. News, II, 323 ; Sci./Electrotyping. Saint- Victor Smee Spigerel |Br. Amer., 2, V, 200. Chan eb 440: Chem. News, I, 31. @Inv., LX XVIII, 271 Electrol. of Au and Ag. Detection of As. Electro-silvering. Literature of Electrolysis. 1862 1863 Wright Abel Andrews Beequerel 3 Beil Bloxam Brooman Gerardin Lapschin and Tichanowitsch Marié Piffard Plauté Von Liebig Wake D) ? ? Becquerel ‘Beetz \Beslay Dickson \Garnside Gore cé Miller Quneke Walcott Abel Baeyer Becquerel Bonsfield Phil. Mag., 4, XIX, 129. Br. Pat. Rep., 1861, 1792. J. Chem. Soc., XIII, 344. C. R., LITT, 1196; JB., 1861, 203. Chem. News, IV, 5. Br. Pat. Rep., 1861, 1214. J. Chem. Soc., XIII, 12. br. Pat. Rep., 1861, 2028. C. R., LI, 727; JB., 1861, 51 Peters. Acad. Bull. [N. S.]. IV, 81; C. C., 1861, 613; Phil. Mag., 4, XXII, 308; J. Pharm., 3, XLII, 95; JB., 1861, 50. C. B., LIil, 1058. Chem. News, IV, 110. C. R., L, 393. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1861, 33721. Chem. News, III, 365. Sci. Amer., 2, V, 361. J. Fr. Inst., 8, XLII, 330. Sci. Amer., 2, V, 342. C. R., LY, 18; Instit., 1862, 221; Arch. ph. nat. [N. P], XV, 59; Rep. ch. pure, IV, 321; C. C., 1862, 772; J. pr. Chem., LXXXVI, 503; Ann. Pharm., CXXIV, 311; Dingl. J., CLXV, 373; Zeitschr. Chem. Pharm., 1862, 478; JB., 1862, 34; Chem. News, VI, 126. Poge., CXVII, 17. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1862, 36750. Br. Pat. Rep., 1862, 2044, 2266. Dingl. J., CLXVI, 309. JB., 1862, 162. Proce. Roy. Soc., 1862; Phil. Mag., 4, XXIV, 461; Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], XV, 64. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1862, 34640. Arch, ph, nat. [N. P], XIII, 185. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1862. 34470. J. Chem. Soc., XVI, 235; Chem. News, VIII, 18. Ann. Pharm., CXXVII, 38. CoRR UVa, 2aimeinstite 1863, 41; Ann. Pharm., CXXVI, 298; C. C., 1863, 525; JB., 1863, 115 ; Chem. News, VIJ, 219. Chem. News, VII, 69. Mercury as an electrode. Electro-metallurgy of Ni. Electrolysis of oxygen. Hydrates of Si and Al by electrolysis. Coloring iron by electrol. Electro-metallurgy of Al. Detection of As and Sb. Electro-metallurgy of Au. ~ Electrolysis of alloys. ].|Electrolysis with large bat- teries. Electrol. of alkaline salts. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-plating. Coloring iron by electrol. Electro-plating iron, Electrolysis by weak cur- rents. Electrolysis of H, SOx,. Electro-metallurgy. Manuf. of Na, COs. Electrotyping. Electrolysis of Sb. Sound by electrolysis. Electro-plating wires. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electrolytic action. Ozone by electrolysis. Electrolysis of insoluble compounds. Electro-metallurgy. Literature of Llectrolysis. 337 1863 1864 Dircks Gore Gerardin Kirchner Lovel Moigno Perrot Soret | Werther Becquerel EKdme Jaillard Kekulé Martin Moore Raoult Soret Thompson Weil ? 2 Berlandt Buff JArch. Pharm., Chem. News, VII. 105. Phil. Mag., 4, XXV, 479 JB, 1863; 2325 J. Chem. Soc., XVI, 365; Chem. News, VIII, 257. 281. Cant. amie Tnstits. 1861, 378; Rep. chim. pure, IV. 49; JB., 1863, 52. C. C., 1863, 837; JB., 1863, 502 GRE LVI, 390. Br. A. A. Sci.. 1863, 20. A.c. p., 3. LXI, 161; Arch. ph. nat. NEPA x 232; JB., 1863, 52. Cour. LIV, 390; Buibl. Univers., XVI; dls [Orr Chem., XC, 216; Aun. Pharm., CXXVII, 38; Pogg., CX VIII, 623; Roma, Att) XV (638) Phill! Mag., 4, XXV, 208; Chem. News, VII, 248; Arch. ph. nat. (IN. P.], XVI, 208: J. pr. Chem., LXXXVII, “Bl: JB., 1863, 502. iL Bae LIX, 521. Gee News, X, 91. Ann. Pharin., C. R., LVI, 1203. Ann. Pharm., CXXXI, 80; JB., 1864, 374; Bull. Soc. Chim., I. 242. C. R., LVI, 108. Br. Pat. Rep., 1864, 2029. C. R., LIX, 521; A. ec. p., 4, IV, 417; Phil. Mag., 4, XXVIII, 551; JB., “1864, 116. Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], XX. 324 ; Instit, 1864, 316; Mag., 4, A @s [Don 1864, 116. Br. Pat. Rep., 1864, 3095. «1864, 497; A. @o Wn 4h UW eee Oe de, Nov., 1864; Quart. J. Sci., 1, If, 1380; Bull. Soe. Chim., II. 472. Dingl. J., CUXXII, 483. Jia lite, IMs. Gk, EVID GI. Phil. 4, Ill, 504; JB., Phil. Mag., 4. XXX, 451. Ann. Pharm., XCIV, 15. CXXXII, 360; Cr lk, AB br History ot electro-metall. ; Electrolysis of Sb. Electrolysis of K and Na. Electrolysis of glycerine. Ozone by electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electrolysis by the induc- tion spark. Ozone by electrolysis. Electrolysis of glycerine. Electro-chem. equivalents. Electrolysis of oxygen. Electrolysis of alcohols. Electrol. of organic bodies. Theory of electrolysis. HKlectro-metallurgy of Au. Heat and electrolysis. Electrolysis of gases. XXVIII, 563; Electro-metallurgy of Pt. New process of electro- CXXI, 54; metallurgy. Electrolysis. Curious electrolytic action. A new electrolytic process. Electrolysis of Ag Cl. 1865) 1866 1867 Canderan Gibbs Hittorf Martin Reid Renault Smith Thompson Ullik Viollet Well Zaliwski ? ? 9 9 Brewster Bouilhet Bourgoin Brewster Brooman Christofle Heeren Balsamo Bartlett Becquerel Bouilhet Literature of Hlectrolysis. Dingl J.; CLXXVIII, 204. Bull. Soe. Cini. VI, 126; Am. J. Sci., 2, NOOO, 64. Pogg., CXXVI, 195; Phil. Mag., 4, XLVIII, 240. C. R., LX, 777, 956; Quart. do Sis, I) JUL x0). Chem. News, XII, 242; JB., 1865, 243. Bull. Soe. Chim., IV, 119. Sci. Amer., 2, pxalille 404. Br. Pat. Rep., 1865, 2592. Wien. Akad. Ber., LIT, 2°, 115; JB., Le 186. B. Soc. ’Ind., 2, XII, 447, Oa. Sci. Amer., 2, XII, 182. C. R., LXI, 945. Pogg., CXXIV, ‘5. SE ODO ona Chem. News, XII, 3; Cos-| mos, 2, I, 595. Chem. News, XI, 60. Bull. Soc. Chim., Arch. Neer. Sci. 296. B. Soc. l’Ind., 2, XIII, 207. ALCS amps 4, TV. 157; Chem. News, XVI, 313-| Obie TV) 892, 998, 1144; JB., 1867, 381. JB., 1866, 87. Br. Pat. Rep., 1866, 3047. B. Soe. VIna., 2, XIII, 389. Sci. Amer., 2, XIV, 357. Quart. J. Sci., 1, II, 300. Bull. Soc. Chim., VI, 96. (Ch 1R.5 JODSUUL, ateHL J. pr. Chem., XCIV, 507. Pogg., CX XVII, 45. C. R., LXV, 618. Chem. News, XVI, 257. Coes. DDSI 919, 1211; ay, dL, 720; 752: Instit., isto, bya), I}, 353 : Zeitsch. Chem., 1867, 374, 455, 515; Arch. ph, nat. [N. P.], XXIX, 55; J. Pharm., 4, VI, 129; Tee 1867, {tite B. Soc. IRiGael.; 2, SGDY, Biz, 409. CLXXV, 184; VIII, 23; 15 Ih) Electrolysis. ; Analysis of Cu_and Ni. Electrolysis of P. Theory of electrolysis. Electrolysis of Th. Analysis of alloys. Electro-plating of springs. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Electrolysis of Si. steel Electro-metallurey of Cu. Electro-plating. Electrolysis. ‘Electrol. of organic bodies, 'Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electrol. of organic bodies. | cal The same. ‘Electro-metal. of bronze. ‘Electro-metallurgy. | Hlectrotyping. ‘Electrolysis of COx. 'Gelatine in electro-metall. ‘Ozone by electrolysis. |The same. Electrodes of Al and Mg. Electro-metallurgy. |Experiments in electrol. | Electro- capillarity in elec- trolysis. ‘Electro-gilding. | | Metalloids by electrolysis. See hy 1867, 1868 Literature of Electrolysis. 339 Buff Feuquieres Gaugain Hoffmann Lecoq ce Levison Matteucci Paalzon Plante Renault Salet ? ? Becquerel Balsamo Bloxam Bourgoin Corson Darling Dumas Farre Chem. News, XV, 279; Ann. Pharm., JB., 1866, 83. B. Soc. l’'Ind., 2, XIV, 589. C. R., LXIX, 1300; Instit., Quart. J. Sci., 1, V, 116; Phil. Mag., 4, XXXIV, a Chem. News, XVI, Bea, CXXXII, 607; Bull. Soc. Chim., X, 228. Bull. Soc. Chim., VII, 468. XI, 35. Am. J. Min., 1867, June 15, July 20. C. R., Jan., 1867; J. Sci., 1, V, 116. Berl. Monatsber., 1868, 490. Chem, News, XVI, 2438. A. c. p., 4, XI, 187; JB., 1867, 115. Laborat, 1867, 248: JB., 1867, 117. Sci. Amer., 2, XVI, 214. J. Fr. Inst., 3, LIV, 202. C. R., LXVI, 77, 245, 766, Quart. 1066; Instit., 1868, 50, 181, 177; Arch. ph. nat. Ne) Ee eXeXOXT ys; Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVI, 437; JB., 1868, 82. C. R., LXVII, 1081; Instit., 1868, 886; Zeitsch. Chem. , 1869, 134; JB., 1868, 87. Bull. Soe. Chim., IX, 250. Chem. News, XIX, 289; JB., 1868, 151. Bull. Soe. Chim., X, 206; D.C. Ges., II, 563; C. R., LXVII, 94. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII, 438; X, 3, 209; IX, 427, 301, 431, 34; Quart. J. sie, i, Wik 2Ge de Pharm., 4, XI, 10; D. C. Ges., 1869, 659; JB., 1869, 152; A. c. p., 4, XIV, 157, 430; Chem. News, XVI, 38. Sci. Amer., 2, XVIII, 368. J. Chem. Soc., X XI, 502. B. Soc. ’Ind., 2, XV, 383. C. R., LXVI, 252, 470, 1231; LX VII, 1012; Poge.,| Sup. IV, 257; 1869, 401; JB., 1867, 147; Electrolysis of alkaline sulphates. Electro-metallurgy of Sn. Polarization of electrodes. Electrolysis of water. Analysis of Cu and Ni. Separation of Fe and Cu. Electrolytic action of Na amalgam in the extrac- tion of gold. Polarization of electrodes. Electrolysis of salts. Lead electrodes. Electrolysis of gases. Laws of electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-metal. of bronze. Hlectro-capillarity and electrolysis. Silicates by electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Electrolysis of nitre. Electrolysis of water. Electrolysis bodies. of organic Separation of gold. Elect of alkaline acetates. Electro-metallurgy. Heat and electrolysis. Literature of Hlectrolysis. 1868 1869 Feuquieres Gates Jacobi Klein Kness Kolbe Lisenko Raoult ay Remington Rundspaden Tyndall Walenn Warburg Wilde Weith W ohler Woodworth Wright Zaliwski mH D ? Adams Becquerel Berthelot Bourgoin oe CXXXV, 300; Phil. Mag., 4, XXXV, 289; XXXVI 310; JB., 1868, 91. B. Soc. l'Ind., 2, XV, 278. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1868, 80402. /Bull. Soc. 8. Peters., XII, 568. B. Soc. V’Ind., 2, XV, 286; Chem. News, XVII, 133; Bull. Soc. Chim. 2, XI, 428. Bull. Soce.:Chim., 2, 1X, 416; Sci. Amer., 2, XX, 184. J. Chem. Soc., X XI, 195. Zeitschr. Chem., 1868, 282; Jahresb., 1868, 91. OC, 1h, IbVMID, 285 JIB. 1868, 49. C.R., LXVI, 358; LXYVI, 950, 1006;. JB., 1868, 93. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1868, 82877. Ann. Pharm., CLI, 306; JB., 1868, 150. Am. J. Sci., 2, XLV, 34; XLYI, 180. Chem. News, XVI, 170. Poge., CXXXYV, 114: JB., 1868, 93. Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVI, 81. Bull. Soc. Chim., X, 121. Ann. Pharm., CXLYI, 263, 375; JB., 1868, 192; Chem. News, XVIII, 189. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1868, 842438. ait ss 1868, 79427. C. R., LXVI, 1106. Sci. Amer., 2, XVIII, 377. Pogg., CXXXYV, 124. 6eé 6é 293. 6é ce 115. J. Fr. Inst., 3, LV, 368. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1869, 90332. C. R., LXVIII, 1285. J. Pharm., 4, II, 200; Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XIII, 107; C. C., 1870, 226; JB., 1870, 159; Quart. J. Sci., VI, 320; Chem. News, XVIII, 82. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII, 400; JB., 1869, 152. Bull. Soe. Chim. 2, XI, 39; XII, 483; D. C. Ges., II, Fe and Sn by electrolysis. Electro-plating. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-deposition of Fe. Electro-metallurgy. Electrol. of acetic acid. Electrolysis of gases. Electrolysis of salts. Heat and electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Ni. H.O; by electrol. of H.O. Faraday as a discoverer. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Electrolysis of Hz SOu. Laws of electrolysis. Electrol. of nitro-prus- sides. Oxidation by electrolysis. Electro-plating. The same. Voltametric tion. Paper silvered. Electrolysis by the spark. Electrolysis. Electrolysis at high tem- peratures. Electro-bronzing. Electro-metallurgy of Ni. Electrol. of organic bodies. Electrolysis by the in- duction spark. decomposi- Electrol. of organic bodies. Electrolysis of soda, pot- ash and ammonia. Literature of Electrolysis. 341 1869 1870 Clay Delaurier Friedel Gerland Gore Hoffmann Jacobi Kolrausch Maisstrasse Patry Rust Tait Tucker Ullgren Varrentrapp Warburg Becquerel ee Bloomstrand Bourgoin ee Boisfeillet Bunge 15; Chem. News, XIX, 218; A.c. p., 4, XV, 48. Sci. Amer., 2, X XI, 346. C. R., LXVIII, 1124. Quart. J. Sei, 1, Vi, 471. AOS OFC RENOIR oneh: Anz. Ann. Chim., 4, XVIII, 461; JB., 1869, 147. Quart. J. Sci., 1, VI, 319. Deut. Ges. Ber., 1869, 244. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII, 498; Bull. Sci. S. Peters., XIII, 40. Pogg., CX XXVIII, 385. B. Soe. l’Ind., 2, XVI, 590; XVII, 103. Achivap hes nate | New seals Noy., 1868; Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVII, 475. ‘U.S. Pat. Rep., 1869, 98110. Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVIII, 243. U.S. Pat. Rep., 1869, 90894. ‘Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XII, | 249, Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII, | 420; Schweiz Polyt. J., | 1868, 87; Zeitsch. Chem., XI, 732. A.c.p., 4, XVI, 489; Pogg., | CXXXyV, 114. ‘Sci. Amer., 2, X XI, 1538. enc 2h SNOXGTE 78: J. Fr. Inst., 3, LVIII, 370. [SCiaeAmMens 2, UNG OT: iC. R., LXX, 345; Instit., 1870, 66; JB., 1870, 144; Amer. Chem., J, 147; | Quart. J. Sci., 1, VI, 391. 'C. R., LXXI, 197; Instit., 1870, 225; JB., 1870, 149. D. C. Ges., III, 533. A. c. p., 4, XXI, 264; C. R., | LXX, 811; JB., 1870, 274. A.-c. p,, 4, XXI, 264; C. R., LXX, 191; J. Pharm., PN ESE Or Onna: | D.C. Ges., III, 325. ‘Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XVII, 244: A.c. p., 4, XXVIII, 119; J. Chem. Soc., XXV, 27; JB., 1870, 108. 'B. Soc. l'Ind., 2, XVII, 588. DiC) Ges wi 29) Oil: Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Electro-metallurgy of Cu. Electrolysis of H,Si. Electrolysis of water. Electrolysis of HF. Laws of electrolysis. EHlectro-metallurgy of Fe. Electrolysis of H.SO.. Electro-metallurgy of Zn. Research on electrodes. Electrolysis of alloys. Electrolytic polarization. Electro-gilding on iron. Analysis of Cu and Ni. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Heat in electrolysis. Hlectro-gilding. Baths for electro-plating. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Electro-plating paper. Electro-capillarity in elec- trolysis. Laws of electro-capillarity. Classification of elements. Electrolysis of acids. Electrolysis of salts. Theory of electrolysis. Electrol. in photography. Electrolysis of salts. Amer. Chem., I, 36, 310;) 1870 1871 Literature of Electrolysis. arises ee Burekhard Christofle Gaiffe Hittorf ce Houzeau Howard ‘Kohlrausch ‘Martin Royer /Runspaden Wernicke Wright Adams ‘Bingham Bourgoin Brodie Farre Lenz Merrick Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XIV, 220; Chem. News, XXIII, 22; JB., 1870, 155. Jen. Zeitschr., V, 393 Zeitschr. Chem., 1870, 212; Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XIV, 35; JB., 1870, 157 Chem. Amer. Chem.,I, 37; Quart. dis S@in5 2, 1 Ao. ‘Bull. Sci. S. Peters., XV, 319. ‘Quart. J. Sci., 1, VIL, 289. Pogg. CVI, 348; JB., 1870, 134. CVI, 542; JB., 1870, Pose, C. wae LXX, 1286; Chem. | News, XXI, 298; Amer. | Chem., 1, 68: Quar. J Sci. [N. S.], TX, 994. (Ui Si eeate ikepe, asi0} | 100088. iA. ce. p., April, 1870; Phil. Mag., 4, XL, 229. OP Ties UDO Gilats | News, XXI, 154. Chem. iC. R., LXX, 7381; JB., 1870, aGoa: Quart. J. Sci., 1, vue 138. ‘Bull. Soe. Chim. , 2, XV, 50; Pogg., CXLI, 109; J. pr, | Chem., 2, II, 419: "Am, Je | Sei. 3 I, 298. jU. 5. Pat. Rep., 1870, 101075. | ne 1871, 113612 B. Soc. lInd., 2, aloe | 168, 258. |U.S. Pat. Rep., wre 115926; Sci. Amer., 2 XXV, 42: Bull. Soe. Chim.., 9, XVIII, 139. | ier, Geile Isl See, Chime pekinese Dae | Ges., V, 827. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc., XX, 472 | Bull. Roy. Soc., XXI, 482; Phil. Trans., CLXII, 495. C.R. SUX XI 1463; Quart. ues Sci., 2 2, We 276. \B. Soe. ’Ind., OXGVAL, 1G), Chem. News, YOY, 100, i Li; JB 1871, 933: Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVI, 262. News, XXI, 238: |A. c. p., 4, XXII, 361; JB.; ;|Electrolysis of salts. Electro-metallurgy. Nickel plating. Electrolysis of water. Electrol. of Zn and Cd. Electrolysis of air. Electro-metallurgy of Sb. Ohm/’s law in electrolysis. Ozone by electrolysis. Electrol. of organic bodies. Electrolysis of water. Electrolysis of salts. Electro-plating. ;Electro-metallurgy of Ni. ; Electro-metallurgy of Sn. Electrol. of organic bodies. ;|Electrolysis of gases. Conduction by electrolysis. Electro-metallurgy of Fe. Analysis of Cu and Ni. Literature of Electrolysis. 343 | 1871 Moore D. C. Ges., IV, 519; Am.|Electrolysis of C2H10Os.. dic Ck. Bt, LUO, IT Parmlee U.S. Pat. Rep., 1871, 114191.|Electro-metallurgy of Ni. Pratt i s 1871, 118090. |Electro-metallurgy. Quincke Pogg., CXLIV, 1, 161; J.|Hlectrolysis. Pharm., 1871, 132; Phil. Mag., 4, XLIII, 396, 518. Schénn Chem. News, XXIII, 59;)Electrolysis. Pogg., 1870, Sup. V, 11. Scoutten Quart. J. Sci., 2, I, 299. Electrolysis of wines. Skey Chem. News, XXIII. Electrolysis of oxides. _ |Soret A.c. p., 4, XXII, 150. Electrolysis of oxygen. Walenn Chem. News, XXII, 1; Sci.|Electro-metall. of brass. Amer., 2, XXIV, 119. 1872! Aarland Chem. News, XXIV, 313;|Electrol. of itaconic acid. “i di, joe, Clem, 2, Savsuul ITAL, Beardslie U.S. Pat. Rep., 1872, 12988.|Electro-metallurgy of Ni. Becquerel C. R., LXXV, 1729; JB.,|Electrolysis of amalgams. 1872, 112. be C. R., LXXIV, 1310; JB.,|Electro capillarity. 1872, 114. a C. R., Jan., 1872; Chem.|Decomposition by the News, XXV, 70. spark due to calorific effects. Blane Ch IR, IONS Baie H.O2 ae electrolysis of r HS 4. Boillot C. R., LXXVI, 628, 869,/Action of the electric 1182, 1712; J. Chem. Soc.,|_ brush on CyH and air. XXVII, 713; Chem. News, XXVII, 256; Chem. Soc. Trans. [V. 8.], XI, 724. Bottger Quart. J. Sci., 2, Il, 407. | Electro-metallurgy of Zu. Brown D. C. Ges., V, 484. Electrolysis of sugar. Carstanjen Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XVII,/Electrol. of itaconic acid. : 221; Jour. pr. Chem., IV, 376. Fearn Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, X VIII,|Electro-metall. of alloys. AB XOXO 40 Gladstone Proc. Roy. Soc., XX, 218;/Electrolysis. Phil. Mag., 4, XLIV, 73; ‘ Chem. News, XXV, 146; Arch, phe nat: (Ny Pay 45, 418; JB., 1872, 111. Heeren Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVIII, | Electro-metallurgy. 371; Dingl. J., CCLV, 487. Keith Quart. J. Sci., 2, Il, 402. | Electro-metallurgy of Ni. Kempf Chem. News, XXIV, 157;/Electrolysis of acetates. Je pr: Chem: CX, 5 Nos. 11, 12. Lecoq Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVI, Separation of Fe and Cu. 41; C. R., LXXIII, 1822. Lobstein Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVII,|Electro-metallurgy. 480. Mansfeld Z. anal. Chem., 1872, 1;|/Analysis of Cu, Ni, Co. JB., 1872, 912. d44 Literature of Hlectrolysis. 1872 1873 Paterno Raoult Ruhmkorft Tavernier Thenard Thompson Wright 9 Aarland Becquerel oe ce Brodie Chalevier Divers Dumas Gourdon Gramme Helmholtz Houzeau Jean Kohlrausch Ladenburgh Le Blane Levison Lippmann Maistrasse Maumené Moncel Pisati Raoult Sundell D. C. Ges., V, 642. Cr Rs, TixXOXVG 1106: Be 1870, 111. Quart. J. Sci., 2, I, 408. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XTX, 90. CC) Ry, Laxey tls! Chem. News, XXIV, 194. fe RVI, 13: Amer. J. Sci., 3, ve 29: Chem, Soc. Trans. [N. 8.]. X, 1072. Sci. ‘Amer., , 2 XXVI, 26. on pr. pee 2, VI, 256: Chem. News. XXV ie, 305] Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, 3 XIX, | 258. Crs, eXONeValil y= 84a ibs 1873, 128. JB 1873, 120. C. Re LXXVIL 1130. J. Chem. Soce., Proc. Roy. Soc., Xi, 245- Phil: Mag. B XLVII, 309. J. Chem: Soc., XXVI, 29; CARE LXXV, oot D. C. Ges., VI, 7 Cane 1 OOUe ot. ae a 125 Sci. Amer., 2, MTL 120. Ber. Mon., 1873. C. CR, LXXVIL, 1208. Electrolytic equivalents. Electrolysis of Cd. ‘Ozone by electrolysis. Electro-metall. of alloys. ‘Electrolysis of gases. Electrolysis of Al. ; Ozone by electrolysis. | ’ | Electron metallia LYN Bleetr olysis of water. Electro-capillarity. Electrolysis and chemical | a. iflnity. XXVI, 744; batons sis of CO. >| A, Electrolysis by the electric | brush. Electrolysis of NHiNOs. Electrolysis of COs. ‘Electro-metallurgy of Zn. Electrotyping. ‘Conduction in electrolytes. ‘Electrolysis by the brush. Be alps ey ‘Action of the brush on Pogg., CXLIX, 171; JB.,|Hlectrolysis of Ag. 18738, 125. J. Chem. Soc., XXVI, 26; Electrolysis and molecular D. C. Ges., V, 753. | weight. Chem. Soc. Trans., XXVI,/H,O2 i electrol. of 242. | 2 J. Fr. Inst., May, 1878. ‘Production of NH; in nitric acid batteries. Pogg., CXLIX, 547; Phil. Action of ions on elec- Mag., 4, XLVII, 28. trodes. B. Soc. l’Ind., 2, XX, 689. | Electrolysis of Sn. C. R., LXXVI, 1146. Electrolysis by the brush. J. Chem. Soc., XX VI, 833; Mercury electrodes. CARS I XOXeVal al 3G: | ne OXON AOL: ‘Electrolysis by the brush. D. C. Ges., VI, 142. Modifications of electrol. C. R., LXXVI, 156: JB.,|Hlectrolysis of Zn, Cd, Sn. 1873, 125. Pogg. ‘CO xanixe 144. o5*? | Electrolysis of metals. Literature of Electrolysis. | 187 3 Thénard | | ? ? ? 1874 Becquerel Bourg goin Boillet Domanlip Dumas ‘Favre ‘Gladstone ‘Martin /Onimus ‘Renard | ‘Regnon ‘Schrétter Slavik Symons Thénard Thompson Wittstein Wright ? 1875) Becquerel oo. H— nse 1048, 183, 517; J. Chem. ; soc., XXVI, 1093: Chem, News, XXVII, 243, iSci. Amer., 2) XXIII, 23. ie oY XXIX. Mil. J. Chem. Soc., 1878, 452. O.R., LXXIV, 82;LXXVI, 245, 849; LXXVIII, 89, 1018, 1081; LXXIX, 82, D. C. Ges., VII, 1039. GC. R., LX XIX, 636. CC, isis, are C. R., LXXVITI, 318. « LXXVIII, 1678; JB., 1874, 180; D. C. Ges., VII, 950; J. Chem. Soc., X XVII, 861; Chem. News, XXX, 63. Br. A. Ad. Sci., Instit., 1874. 354; JB., 1874, 130; Chem. News, XX XI, 49> C. R., LX XVIII, 1354. « LXXVIII, 648; JB., 1874, 181. C. R., LXXIX, 508, 159; JB., 1874, 128. C. R., LXXIX. 299; JB., 1874, 129. Roger Cul iae Phils Mag., 4, AL 239, D. C. Ges., VII, 1051. Pharm. J. Trans., 3, V, 35) 2 Jee, ALS AL Sel. 1874, 31; JB., 1874, 131. C. R., LX XVIII. 219. Proc. Roy. Soc., 1874. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, X XI, 565; Dingl. J., CCXII, 137. Am. J. Sci., 8, VI, 184; Chem. Soc. Trans. [N. S. ik XII, 975. J. Fr. Inst., 3, LX VII, 12. C. R., LX XX, 411. JB., 1875, 102, 142. C. R., LXXXT, 1002. « LXXXI, 808, 849. | C. R., LXXVI, 1082, 1508, 1281; JB., 1874, 132, 133.| J. Chem. Soe., XX VII, 645; 1874, 56; J.Chem. Soc., XXVIII, 328; ©. BR, LXXX, 411, 589; Electrolysis by the elec- tric brush. | lane acres Electro-plating with Sn. ° Electrolysis of Zn. Electro-capillarity. Oxymalinic acid. ‘ Electrolysis by the brush. Mechanical theory of elec- trolysis. Electrol. of acetic acid. “of carbonates of soda. Electrolysis of Cu and Pt. Analysis by electrolysis. Electro-capillarity. Passive iron. The same. Electrolysis of P. Electrolysis of salts. Hlectrolysis of oils and non-conductors. Electrol. of acetic acid. Electrolytic conduction in hot glass. Silver baths in electro- plating. Ozone by electrolysis. ~ Tron electrotypes. Electrolysis in nutrition. Electro-capillarity. i Electrol. of organic bodies. Electrolysis and chemical affinity. Literature of Electrolysis. 1875 1876 Boillet Budde Christomanos Coquillon Ducretes Fleming Gladstone Goppelsréder Janeczek |\Miiller Obach Renard ee Tribe Becquerel Berthelot Bertrand Bleekrode Bunge oe Cazeneuve Christomanos De la Rue Dossios Elsiisser Fuchs Gladstone C. R., LXXX, 1167. Pogs., CLYI, 618; JB., 1875, 100; J. Chem. Soec., XXIX, | 865, Gaz. Chim. Ital., 1875, 402; JB., 1875, 397. D. C. ’Ges., VIII, 1534. C. R., LXXX, 280; JB., 1875, 100. Br. A. Ad. Sci., 1875, 28.| Proc. Roy. Soc, XXIV, 47;| JB., 1875, 101. C. R., LXXXI, 944; D. C. Ges., IX, 959; JB., 1875, 102. J. Chem. Soc., XXIX, 182;) D. C. Ges., VII, 1018; JB., 1875, 101. J. Chem. Soc., XXVIII, 123; Pogg., CLI. 286. Pogg., VII, Sup., 280; JB..| 1875, 97. D. C. Ges., VIII, 182; C. B., LXXX, 105, 236. C. R.. LXXXIT 562; LXXXI,| 188; Chem. News, XKXI | 72; RIL, 84. Proc. Roy. Soe., XXIV, 308; J. Chem. Soce., ., 1876, 126. , LXXXII, 1007. oA ID OXORTUL, Bi}. “~~ 6 LXXXIT, 1002. 56 JOXOLOSTNT, USYR0). Co 1pOO-C0E Bayle i, Chem. Soc., XXXI, JB., 1876, 126. Proc. Roy. Soc., XXV, 322. D. C. Ges., 1876, 1598; JB., 1876, 128. D. C. Ges., IX, 78. J. Chem. Soc., XXX, 456; C. R., LXXXIl, 1341. D. C. Cow VIII, 1359. Proc. Roy. Soe., XXYV, 323. D. C. Ges., IX, 1792. 6 IDS Werle TRipilil Soe. Chim., 2, XXVIII, 469; J. Chem. Soe. , XXXL 676. Pogg., CLIX, 486; JB., 1876, 126. J. Chem. Soc., 1876, 2, 152; JB.. 1876, 127, 129; C. C., 1876, 545; Chem. News, XXXIII, 218: D. C. Ges., XXX, 36; Chem. News, XXXII, 13 Ill Ozone by electrolysis. Electrolysis. ‘Diphenyl by electrolysis. ‘Electrol. of aniline salts. Aluminium electrodes. Electrolysis by the spark. houses |Electrolysis of aromatic compounds. Theory of electrolysis. . Distribution of the current in the electrolyte. Electrol. of amalgams. Electrolysis of alcohol. Electrol. of glycerine. . Theory of electrolysis. lWlectyo-cerpilleumtey Electrol. by the spark. Currents of high tension. Electrol. by the brush. Electrolysis of Al, Mg, Cd, Sb, Bi, and Pt. |Electrolysis. Electrol. of formic acid. Electrol. of oxalic acid. Metallic films on organic substances by electrol. Electrol. of acetylchloride. Electrolysis of HCl. Theory of electrolysis. Mg and Pt electrodes. Electrolysis. Electrolysis of water. es. ee ee eee ee Literature of EHlectrolys sis. BAY 1876 Goppelsréder Guillaume- iH. H. B.S. Monrocy |Roberts |\Schiel Schiff Wohler 1877| Becquerel Beetz Berthelot Bottger Bourgoin Fleming Frentz Gibbs Gladstone Goppelsréder Guerout Heliesen Jablochkoff Javelle Kohlrausch. Kowalewsky Parodi Planté IX, 950; Bull. Soc. Chim.. 2, XXVIII, 107. - | IDE ©L Ges, IDS, G83 Cy iad! LXXXi, 1199; Chem.| News, XXXIV, 118; JB., 1876, 129. C. R., LXXXTI, 349. J. Chem. Soc., XXX, 115; C. G., 1875, 527. 520. 127. 1877, 165 ; J. Chem. Soe., XXIV, 2; D. C. Ges., X, 118. LXXXVI, 71. J. Chem. Soc., XXXII, 375; C. C., 1876, 640. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXVII, 645; XXVIII, 51; C. R., J. Chem. Soc., XXXI, 266; Phil. Mag., 5, I, 142; Proc. Roy. Soc., XXVI, 40. J. Chem. Soc., XXXII, C. C., 1876. 592. D. C. Ges., X, 1388. Proc. Roy. Soc., XXVI, 2. 239; Dingl. J., CCXXI, 81; CCXXITI, BIT, 634 ; CCXXIV, 92, 209; JB., 1877, 166. CH Tag IDOCO.QV5” Weiss dBi 1877, 166. Chem. News, XXXV, 72; C. R., LXXXIV, 85. “« Dec., 1877. «6 LXXXIV, 1171. J. Chem. Soc., XXXI, 429; Dingl. J., CCXXII, 283. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXVII, 000 ; Ber., 1877, 413; JB., 1877, 166; D. C. Ges., X 413. : J. Chem. Soc., XXXII, 804; Gaz. Chim. Ital., VII, 222. > C. R., LXXXIV, 26. LXXXIV, 1231. Electrol. of aniline salts. Electrol. of liquid CO:. Electrol. in assaying. Bull. Soc. Chem., 2, XXVI, Electro-metall. of Bi, Sb. Chem. News, XXXI, 137. Electrolysis of Fe. Pogg., CLIX, 489; JB., 1876, Electrolysis of gold salts. D. C. Ges., IX, 344. Electrolysis of salts. fs [Xe 182i Hat both electrodes. C. R., LXXXIV, 145 ‘Electrolysis in capillary tubes. Ann. Phys., 2, Il, 94; JB.,|Electrolysis with Al. elec- trodes. A.c. p, 5, XIV, 361; C. R.,|Electrolysis of water. Electrolysis of Co. Electrolysis of pyrotartaric acid. Polarization of electrodes. Electrolysis of Pl. Electrolysis of NH,NOs. Conduction of organic bodies. Electrol. of organic bodies. Electrolysis of H.SO.. Electrolysis of strong salts. Electrolysis of C. Electrolysis of naphthaline. Heat and electrolysis. Electrolysis of Cu SQ,. Analysis of Zn and Pb. Electrolysis of Si. 348 Literature of Electrolysis. 1877 ‘Reboulaud Rout ‘Thénard ‘Thruchot ‘Tribe Wrightson | 1878' Becquerel ‘Berggren Berthelot \Bleekrode Bouvet Coppola Delcambre ‘Ebermayer Hlsiisser Exner Gladstone Herwig Hittorf Kayser Kirmis Leeds Lippmann Morges J. Chem. Soc., C. R., LX XIV, 12381; Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, X XVII, 545; JB., 1877, 166. J. Chem. Soc., XX XII, 161, 271; C. C., 1876, 401. J. Chem. Soc., XX XII, 269; C. R., LXXXIV, 706. CO. R., LXXXIYV, 714. Proc. Roy. Soc., XXVI, 222: JB., 1877, 165. J. Chem. Soc., XX XI, 340; Zeitsch. anal. Chem., 1876, 297. OC. R., 1878, 1018, 1081. J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV, 101; A. ec. p., 5, I, 499. J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV, Rvs (5 IRs, IDOFOFOW IL. 277. Ann. Physi 2) UL, 16u; Phil. Mag., 5, V, 375, {0A fl Cee oll col C0 mC) Chem. Soc., XX XIV, 464. OUR) LUXOXOXGV IN OGSE J. Chem. Soc., XXXVI, 298. Gaz. Chim. Ital., VIII, 60; Ann. Phys. Beibl., II, 353: JB., 1878, 152. Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXX, 431. J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV, 178; Ding]. J., CCXXIV, 631. Ann. Phys. Beibl., I, 352. Wien. Akad. Ber., 2, LXXVII, 655. Chem. Soc. J., XX XIII, 139; Chem. News, XX XVII, 68. J. Chem. Soc., XX XIV, 191; Ann. Phys., 2, IV, 178. ce 9 , LV, 374; JB., 1878, 149. J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV, Reis (OL (Ch, itech, Ue Anmm: (Phys; 2; LV, ‘502: JB., 1878, 150. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., I, 197; Chem. News, XX XVIII, 224. XXXIV, 926; Cae. LX xoxve, 1540. C.R., LXXXVII, 15; C. C., 1878, 602; JB., 1878, 151. Electrol. of organic bodies. Platinum penetrated by electrolytic gases. Electro-metallurgy. Electrolysis by the spark. Electrolysis. Analysis by electrolysis. Electro-capillarity. Conductivity of electro- lytes. Electrolysis of persulphu- ric acid. Electrol. of simple salts. — Electrol. under pressure. Electrolysis of glucose. — Electro-metallurgy. Electro-gilding. H at both electrodes. Electrolysis of waters. Electrolysis. Movements of mercury in electrolysis. Electrolysis of salts. Electro-metallurgy of Ni. Research on the ions. Ozone by electrolysis. Electrodes in metallic so- lutions. Electrolysis of Cr. 1878 1880 Literature of Electrolysis. B49 Pratt Wright Berthelot Bode Brann Dewar oe Levison Schéne Troost Bandet Bourgoin Habermann Elemiatentllte _|Leeds Ohl Renard ce Schucht Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXIX,|Electro-metallurgy of Ag. 142. J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV,|Specula coated by elec- 251; Am. J. Sci., 3, XIV,| rolysis. 167. C. R., LXXXIX, 683. Electrolysis of Au. J. Chem. Soc., XXXVI,/Electro-metallurgy. 760; Dingl. J., COX XXI, 254, 857, 428. J. Chem. Soc., oe Electrolytic conduction. fee Ann. Phys., 2, IV, 476. Proc. Roy. Soc., XXIX, 188.|Electrolysis of HON. XXX, 170. |Electrolytic experiments. Juan, Ve SGlsy oy XdGG, 29, Electrolytic phenomena. J. Chem. Soc., FOOL, Electrolysis of H2Os:. 878. Quart. J. Sci., 3, I, 708. Electro-metallurgy of Co. C. R., XCI, 1004. Ozone by electrolysis. « XC, 608; Chem.|Electrol. of malonic acid. News, XLI, 188. Wein. Acad. Ber., 3,|Electrol. of organic bodies. LXXXI, 747; JB., 1880, 175. Ch, Lita, SCONE esi Electrolysis by the slow discharge. Lond. J. Sci., 3, II, 145. Ozone by electrolysis. Zeitschr. anal. Chem.,/Analysis of Co, Ni, and XVIII, 521; Chem. News,} Cu by electrolysis. XLI, 25. Co 1. XC, @ile News, XLI, 172. C. R., XCI, 175. Electrolysis of benzine. Chemikerzeitung, 1880, 292;)Electrol. of U, Th, V,PIl. Zeitung, XXXIX, 121; JB., 1880, 174; Chem. News, SCLC 280. JB., 1880, 174; D. C. Ges.,|Electrolysis of iron. 1880, 751. Ann. Phys. Beibl., JB., 1880, 177. Chem.|Hlectrol. of terebenthine. IV, 70;|Electro-metallurgy of Ni. 350 Literalure of Electrolysis. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. ANG (510s Annales de chimie et de physique,—Paris. Am. Chem. American Chemist,—New York. Am. J. Min. American Journal of Mining,—New York. Am. J. Sci. American Journal of Science and Arts, Silliman Ann. Elect. Ann. Ch. Pharm. Ann. d. M. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Ann. Phys. Beibl. Arch. Elect. Arch, ph. nat. Arch. Pharm. Arch. Neer Sci. Berl. Acad. Ber. Berl. Monb, Berz. Jahresb. Bibl. Univers. Br. A. Ad. Sci. Basel, Ber. Br. VInv. Br. Pat. Rep. Bull. Acad. Brus. Bull. de St. Pétersb. Bull. Sci. St. Pétersb. Bull. Soe. Chim. B. Soc. Ind. (COMO! Chem. Gaz. Chem. News. Chem. Soc. Q. J. Chem. Soc. Trans. Chem. Soc. Mem. Cimento. Cosmos and Dana,—New Haven, Conn. Annals of Electricity,—London. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie,—Heidelberg. Annales des mines, — Paris. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,— New York. Beiblitter zu den Annalen der Physik und Chemie. Archives de Velectricité,—Genéve. Archives des sciences physique et naturelles,— Genéve. Archiv der Pharmacie,—Lemgo. Archives Neéerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles,—Haarlem. Bericht iiber die Verhandlungen der K. Preus- siche Academie cer Wissenchaften zu Berlin. Berlin. Monatsbericht. Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte der Chemie,— Berzelius, Tiibingen. Bibliotheque universelle des sciences,—Genéve. Report of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science. Bericht tiber die Verhandlungen der naturfor-. schende Gesellschaft zu Basel. Descriptions des machines et procédes specifiés dans les brevets d’inventions,—Paris. British Patent Reports. Bulletin de ’ Académie royale,—Bruxelles. Bulletin de classe physico-mathématique, — St. Pétersbourg. Bulletin Scientifique publié par Académie Imp. des Sciences,—St. Pétersbourg. Bulletin de la Société chimique de Paris. Bulletin de la Société d’encouragement pour Vindustrie nationale,—Paris. Chemisches Centralblatt,—Leipzig. Chemical Gazette, Francis and Croft,—London. Chemical News, Crookes,—London. Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society,— London. Transactions of the Chemical Society,—London. Memoirs of the Chemical Society—London. Il Cimento, giornale di fisica, .ecc.,—Pisa. Cosmos, les Mondes, Moigno, Paris. SO Literature of Llectrolysis. Spl Cookk. Ding. J. D. C. Ges. or Deut. Ber. Edinb. J. Sci. Edinb; N. Phil. J. Edinb. Phil. J. Elec. Mag. Eng. Arch. J. RL ik Gaz. Chim. Ital. Gaz. de L. Gehlen’s J. Gel. Anz. Gilb. Ann. Gott]. Alm. G. Sci. Mis. Hist. ? Acad. Instit. Inv. Ad. JB. or Jabresb. Jen. Zeitschr. J. Fr. Inst. Sepia: J. Chem. Soe. J. Roy. Inst. Journ. de Phys. J. Pharm. J. Polyt. Kastn. Archiv. Laborat. Liebig’s Ann. Lond. J. Mech. Mag. Mém. del’ Acad. Sci. Mém. Soc. Imp. M. Mem. Acad. T. Neues Jour. N. Ed. Phil. J. Nich. J. N. Gehl. N. Pét. Acad. Bull. > Nov. Com. Bon. ata ed. Pharm. Ceut. | Want la ’ 7 « ~ ‘Comptes rendues des séances de Académie des scicnces,—Paris. Polytechnisches Journal, Dingler—Stuttgart. 2s.|Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft | zu Berlin. ‘Edinburgh Journal of Science,—Brewster. ‘Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. |Edinbur: oh Philosophical Journal. Electrical Magazine,—London. |Engineers’ and Architects’ Journal,—London. ‘Faraday’s Researches. Taylor.—London, 1844. \Gazzeta chimica Italiana,—Palermo. ‘Gazette de Lausanne. ‘Allgemeines Journal der Chemie, Gehlen,— | Berlin. ‘Gelehrte Anzeigen,—Miinchen. ‘Annalen der Physik. Gilbert,—Halle. Gottling’s Almanach fir Scheidekiinstler,— Weimar. \Griffin’s Scientific Miscellany,—Glasgow. Histoire de l Académie des Sciences,—Paris. \Inventor’s Advocate,—London. |Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte der Chemie, Giessen. Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Medicin und Naturwis- |_ senschaft,—Leipzig. Journal of the Franklin Institute—Philadelphia. Journal fiir praktische Chemie, Erdmann, Leipzig. Journal of the Chemical Society,—London. Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Journal de physique, Rozier,—Paris. Journal de pharmacie et de chimie,—Paris. Journal de Ecole polytechnique,—Paris. Archiv. fiir die gesammte Naturlehre, Kastner, — Niirnberg. |\Labsratory,— London. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie —Liebig. 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Zeitschrift fiir Chemie und Pharmacie ,—Erlangen. Zeitschrift ftir analytische Chemie, Fresenius, — Wiesbaden. and Transactions, -— ——- Economical Expansion in Steam Engines. 303 XX.—WNote relating to a Newly-Discovered Absolute Limit to Eeonomical EHxpansion in Steam-Engines. BY ROBERT H. THURSTON. Read October 2d, 1882. Norre.—This paper was prepared in the latter part of April, 1882, and sent to the Academy for presentation. But an accidental non-delivery prevented its reaching the Committee on Papers and Publication, until too late for reading before the meetings were suspended for the summer. It was, therefore, presented at the first meeting of the autumn ; but its actual date of reading is really several months later than it should properly have been. DES. NE A paper ‘‘On the Behavior of Steam in the Steam Engine, and on Curves of Efficiency,”* was read by the writer before the New York Academy of Sciences, February 13th, 1882. In that paper it was shown that, if a ‘‘Curve of Efficiency” were constructed for any steam engine, such that its ordinates should be proportional to the work done by quantities of steam laid down in arithmetical progression as abscissas,—the quantity used at full stroke, 7. e., without expansion, being taken as unity,—that such curve would depart from the curve given by the ideal perfect engine, in character, form and location, and that it could not pass through the origin, as does that of the ideal engine, unless by passing through a point of inflection. It was shown that, such a curve being constructed, ratios of expansion at maximum efficiency could be determined by draw- ing tangents to the curve from the junction of the back-pressure line with the ordinate passing through the origm. It was shown that the ratio so determined is larger as the ratio of initial to back-pressure increases. It is the object of this note to call at- tention to the fact that, for the real engine, there exists an absolute limit to economical expansion for every such engine, which cannot be exceeded, however high the pressure of steam may be carried. * Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., February, 1882; Journal Franklin Institute, Feb., 1882. B04 Heonomical Hxpansion in Steam Engines. For: when the steam-pressure (p1) becomes infinite, the ; b ratio =") becomes zero, and the tangents to the curve of efficiency are drawn from the origin (O, Fig. 1). £9 gO bx?) 6o zo 8a Fic. 1, CURVES OF EFFICIENCY. The point of tangency, which, for the ideal case, 4 B O is found at the origin O, where r—« , is for the real case, OC D H found at H, a poit corresponding to some finite value of r. This point thus constitutes a limit to economical expansion such as is here considered, and which is now, so far as the writer is aware, first discovered. ; It was shown, in a paper read before the Society of Mechanical Engineers, April, 1882,* that, by making the distance O 0’, measured toward the left from the origin, proportional to the costs of engine, apart from the costs of supplying steam, and drawing tangents from O’, ratios of expansion at maximum commercial efficiency could be determined. It is now seen that such a limit as is above described is found not only for the real but also for the ideal engine, when commercial efficiency is studied, their limit being determined by the points of tangency B or H, given by the lines 0’ B, O' K’. * Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1882; Jour, Franklin Inst., May, June and September, 1882. New Species of Oypselide. 355 It is not only the fact that such limits exist, as here shown ; but it is also the fact that the limit to economical expansion is reached at alow value of the ratio of expansion for ordinary engines—sometimes probably as low as 8 or 4. Thus, in the condensing unjacketed engine of moderate speed, as in the United States steamer ‘‘ Michigan,” it will be found that, whatever steam-pressure is attained, there exists a limit to economical expansion at some point near r—3, and it can never, in such a case, be economical to ‘‘ cut-off” within one- third stroke unless a better curve of efficiency is obtained. __ In well-designed engines of more economical types, the limit is found at higher values of 7, but may still occur within the range of expansion often met with in practice. Hopoken, N. J., APRIL, 1882. XX.—Description of a New Species of Bird of the Family Cypselide. BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. | Read October 2d, 1882. Hemiproene minor. Above, the plumage is of a lustrous black ; the upper tail-coverts and tail are smoky blackish-brown ; the wings are black ; the quills, with the exception of the outer three, are narrowly margined with grayish-white at their ends ; the chin and throat are fuliginous-brown ; the breast, abdomen and under tail-coverts are smoky brownish-black ; a white collar encircles the neck, behind it is rather narrow and well-defined, in front it is not so clearly defined, and widens out on the breast, where the feathers have their centres mottled with black ; the collar on the hind neck is one-quarter of an inch in width; on the breast, at the widest part, it is three-quarters of an inch ; bill black. Length (skin), 7 inches; wing, 7; middle tail-feathers, 2; outer tail- feathers, 23. 306 New Species of Cypselide. Habitat, New Grenada, Bogota. ‘Type in my collection. Remarks.—This species differs from all its allies in its much smaller dimensions, and in the character of the collar in front. The regular gradation in size of the four species of this genus is remarkable—the difference in total length and in that of the wing, between each, being approximately one inch. Hf. semicollaris is in length 10 inches ; the wing, 10. H. zonaris ue Duet of 9. 3 H. biscutata, Me Salqies OG Bae H, minor, of Hae ees UG * lage The localities of the several species are as given below :— Hf, semicollaris seems to be strictly confined to Mexico, and is very rare in collections. H. zonaris is the most widely distributed species, being noted from Brazil and the Argentine Republic; I have specimens, also, from Jamaica and from Guatemala. H. biscutata, 1 think, has been found only in south-eastern Brazil; I obtained my specimen of it from a collection sent from Rio Janeiro. Hf, minor, so far as known, inhabits only New Grenada. Mor. LE: J. ay Le ey te Vo. II. ANNALS. PLATE Xe Wor. IT: ae Se ey = ——oo —— PLATE XXe ANNALS. II. VoL. PLATE X XI. ANNALS. Vou. II. OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOLUME II, 1880—82. = The “‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of Natural History, are continued under the above name by the New York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, beginning with the year 1877. It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number to consist of not less than thirty-two pages (octavo’, with or without plates. Price of Yearly Subscription, to resident and honorary members of the Academy, $2.00, or 60 cents a single number; to non-residents of New York City, $3.00, or $1.00 a number ; to residents of the City, not members of the Academy, $5.00, or- $1.50 a number. The Academy has for sale a number of back volumes of the Annals of the Lyceum, each containing twelve or more numbers ; the price per volume is $4.00 with uncolored plates, or $5.00 with colored plates. The Academy has established a Publication Fund, contributors to which, in the sum of $100 at one time, are entitled to all the Scientific Publications of the Academy appearing subsequently to the payment of their contri- butions. Communications should be addressed to Pror. D. S. MARTIN, Chairman of Publication Committee, 236 West Fourth Street. Or to JOHN H. HINTON, M. D., Treasurer, 41 West Thirty-second Street. ee [aS Anty person residing within the United States, on sending the amount of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive the numbers as they appear, without further cost. Agents in London, TRUBNER & Co. CONTENTS, XVIIL-—-Fusion‘Structures in Meteorites. By F. G. Wree (with Pintes oe aman KON ave ee aa WB Reig 8 Pe tee eS Ear eel A ate apie Vea BROS XX.—Note relating to a Newly-Discovered Absolute Limit Economical Expansion in Steam Engines. By Ropert ADS RUp Sica i ON PRIA Sal ola Oy cael Cpanel ale nett ees ut tees XXI.—Description of a New Species of Bird, of the tam selide. By Gro. N. LAWRENCE............ joke 2 ALS + A OF THE ES, ADEMY OF SCIENC ie ea YORK A LATE “LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. eas i aay Rew York ; * E Street, N. Y. 34 CARMIN OFFICERS OF THE. ACADEMY. 1882. President. JOHN S. NEWBERRY. Vice-Presidents. BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULIEN. Gorresponding Secretary. ALBERT R.. LEEDS. Recording Secretary. OLIVER P. HUBBARD. Greasuyer JOHN H. HINTON. foibrarian. LOUIS ELSBERG. Committee of Publication. . DANIEL 8S. MARTIN. JOHN 8. NEWBERRY? | GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS, ~~ } W. Po TROWBRIDGE, ws Or ~ Origin of Carbonaccous Shales. XXI.—The Origin of the Carbonaceous Mutter in Bituminous Shales. BY JOHN S. NEWBERRY. Reud April 2d, 1883. Among the sedimentary rocks, there are none in regard to the origin and mode of formation of which there has been more difference of opinion than the bituminous shales. These are typified by theUtica shale of the Lower Silurian, by the Ham- ilton shales of the Upper Devonian,—including the Marcellus, the Hamilton, the Genesee and Gardeau shales of the New York geologists, and their general equivalent, the Huron shale of Ohio, —by the Cleveland shale of the Lower Carboniferous, and by the bituminous shales, with their varieties, blackband iron ore and eannel coal, of the Coal Measures. We also find in Colorado a great mass of bituminous shale occupying the central portion of the Cretaceous series, a part of the ‘* Colorado Group.” These bituminous shales usually contain from ten to twenty per cent. of carbonaceous matter, the remainder being clay and very fine sand, with occasional specks of mica. As a general rule, such shales are not very fossiliferous, but the scales of small ganoid fishes and the singular denticles called Conodonts are almost always present, and not unfrequently we find minute flattened, originally spheroidal bodies, which are apparently the ‘spores of plants. In the Utica shale, graptolites are exceedingly abundant, sometimes quite filling the rock; and trilobites, sponges and crustacea are sparingly found. _ In the Devonian shales, the most common fossils are Lingulas, Discinas, a small Orthoceras, and bivalves of the genera Avicula and Lunulicardium; sometimes, also, a Pteropod (Tentaculites fissurella) in countless numbers; all these are minute. In the Huron shale, and recently, also, in the Devonian shales of New York, have been found the remains of large placoderm fishes in considerable numbers; but vast masses of this-rock 308 Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. may be examined with the discovery of no other fossils than seaweeds, which in some places quite cover the surfaces of the layers. Economically, these shales are of great importance. In places they attain a thickness of several hundred feet, have a wide geo- graphical range, and with their percentage of carbon form a store of combustible material, and a reservoir of power, far ex- ceeding in quantity all the coal beds of the Carboniferous system; they are also undoubtedly the source from which the great flows of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen gas emanate at the West. As we study the lateral extension and geological association of these bituminous strata, we find evidence that they have been deposited in comparatively shallow and narrow seas, not far dis- tant from the shores. Many suggestions have been made in regard to the origin of the vast accumulation of carbonaceous matter contained in these shales. In a paper on the Rock Oils of Ohio, published in the Report of the State Board of Agriculture for 1859, I attributed the production of petroleum to the spontaneous distillation of the organic matter present in these beds, and ascribed the accu- mulation of this carbonaceous matter, for the most part, to sea-weeds, but crediting animal tissues with a portion of the product. later, Mr. Lesquereux took the same view of the origin of petroleum, and I think this is now endorsed by the members of the Geological Corps of Pennsylvania who have given the phenomena of the production of petroleum the most careful and prolonged attention. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, held at Montreal in August Jast, a communi- cation was made to the geological section by Prof. Edward Orton, of Columbus, Ohio, in which, after citing many cases where spheroidal flattened organic granules were found in the Huron shale of Ohio,—bodies which he regarded as the spores of sea-weeds, or lycopods,—he attributed the carbonaceous matter which the shales contained chiefly to them. The paper of Prof. Orton was subsequently published in the American Journal of Science for September, 1882. Origin of Carbonuceous Shales. Ba9 My object in now calling attention to this subject, is to point out some difficulties in the way of the acceptance of this theory, and to offer additional considerations in favor of the view pre- viously proposed, that the carbonaceous matter is mainly derived from alge. It is true that in a great number of localities these minute spheroidal bodies occur, but they are not always or even gene- rally present, and strata many feet in thickness and miles in extent may be examined without discovering any of them. They now form but a very insignificant fraction of the carbona- ceous matter of the shales; and there seem to be good reasons for believing that they have always done so. In the first place, they are apparently the organs of fructifi- cation of plants, but these in quantity always bear an altogether subordinate position to the vegetative tissues with which they are connected ; and if it were true that the carbonaceous matter of these shales was derived only from the reproductive organs, we must account for the disappearance of the hundred times as much organic matter which once composed the organs of vege- tation. Second, it is one of nature’s wise provisions that the envelops of the embryo in plants should be specially resistant to decay, as well as to the action of many destructive agents. The testa of some stone-fruits-is the hardest plant-tissue known, and is specially adapted to resist mechanical violence. Many of the smaller drupes are eaten by birds and other animals, which have the power to digest the sarcocarp but leave the stone uninjured. So the spores are somehow much more en- during than other tissues of the plants that bear them, and are sure to be preserved out of all proportion to their quan- tity. Hence we may conclude that the spores of lycupods watted from the land, or the spores of alge which sunk here and there with the other materials of the shale, would be pre- served, while at least all the cellular tissue of the plants would be disintegrated, though perhaps not destroyed. Third, the great number of sea-weeds found fossilized in the shale indicates the abundance of this class of vegetation and possible source of carbonaceous matter. But the tissue of sea- weeds is all cellular, is easily disintegrated, and has broken 360 Origin of Caurbonaceous Shales. down in almost all cases where these plants are found. If the carbonaceous matter of these shales is due to sea-weeds, it 1s not surprising that it is so generally decomposed. Fourth, in addition to the larger forms of sea-weeds, there are many which are microscopic and uni-cellular; even out in the open ocean they occur in such numbers as to color the water for hundreds of square miles. Some of these, called Zodzanthelle by Brandt, are so associated with the radiolarians as to form self-supporting communities; that is, the alge draw their sup- port from the sea-water,the animals subsisting on the alge. Such organisms exist in overwhelming numbers in both fresh and salt water, and must be leaving an important residuum in diffused carbonaceous particles below their places of abode; we may well believe, therefore, that they have contributed to the formation of such bituminous strata as we are considering. That some part of this carbon may have been derived from the fatty portions of animals, is certainly possible; but their nitrogenized tissues decay with such rapidity, and these con- stitute so large a portion of most animal structures, that we must attribute the greater part of this organic matter to the preservation of the more abundant, more carbonaceous and more enduring tissues of plants. In nearly all fresh water, and many marine basins, the micros- copic protophytes, diatoms and desmids, swarm in countless num- bers ; the abundance of the diatcms being attested by the exten- sive beds of Tripoli (diatomaceous earth), many feet in thickness and many miles in extent, which are formed of the silicious frustules that have resisted decay. But the desmids and the carbonaceous portions of the diatoms have disappeared as such, yet we have reason to believe that they contributed their car- bonaceous particles to the sediments which accumulated in the basins they inhabited. In studying the area occupied by the bituminous shales which have been enumerated, we find they were deposited in shallow and shallowing seas,—the Utica shale in the retreat of the Lower Silurian sea, the Hamilton shales in the narrowed and shallowed basin where the Devonian limestones had been laid down. The Cleveland shale lies on the Waverley shales, the off-shore deposits of the Carboniferous sea, where the water was Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 361 not pure enough and deep enough to produce limestone. So too, the bituminous shales of the Colorado group were deposited near the shore of the Cretaceous sea. In Texas, where the Cretaceous series is nearly all marine limestones, we find no bituminous shales; but as we go west toward the Wasatch Mountains, the permanent shore of the Cretaceous sea, over very extensive areas these limestones are replaced by black shales, off-shore deposits, which are overlain by the Laramie group, shore and terrestrial accumulations, sandstone and conglome- rate with coal strata—that is, old peat beds. The upper Klamath Lake, in Oregon, is a body of water of considerable size, but so shallow that water-plants, particularly a yellow water-lily (Nuphar polysepala) root on the bottom, and cover a large part of the surface with their leaves. The decay of these succulent plants, existing in such quantity, must form a carbonaceous pulpy mass at the bottom. Since however, the lake is only an expansion of a river course,—as Klamath River enters at one end and leaves it at the other,—it is evident that at times the flow of this stream will bring in a con- siderable quantity of transported sediment to mingle with the earbonaceous residue; and it requires no prophet to foretell, that when the bottom of upper Klamath Lake shall be exposed to view, it will be found to be composed of materials which, if consolidated, would become bituminous shale. That sheets of marine vegetation may sometimes cover large water surfaces, is shown in the existence of what are known as Sargasso seas. In the wider portions of the North Atlantic is that through which Columbus plowed his way, greatly to the alarm of his sailors; and others are known to exist in other por- tions of the great oceanic basins. Here the sea-weeds in the ““ Horse latitudes” are undisturbed by any storm, and grow dis- connected with the earth, forming sometimes a matted sheet of vegetation that conceals the water. With this growth must be decay, and we are compelled to imagine the accumulation be- neath these sheets of sea-weed of a carbonaceous mud formed from the decomposing cellular tissue of the plants, and such Inorganic matter as may be contained in their tissues, or is supplied by the decay of the animal organisms which inhabit such regions. 362 Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. These very different examples of the operation of causes now in action would give us strata similar to those we have been studying; but we look in vain over the earth’s surface for any illustration or confirmation of the theory which attributes the - great stores of carbonaceous matter contained in them to the spores or pollen of plants. Because the enduring sporangia of lycopods have remained in considerable numbers in the carbonaceous mass derived from the trees which bore them, and as sometimes these sporangia are the only definite forms visible to the eye, the theory has been proposed that to them chiefly we owe the accumulation of carbonaceous matter that we call coal; but the difficulty has been already sug- gested that these spores must have been associated with a thousand times more plant-tissue; and as they nowhere form more than a thousandth part of the mass, we cannot credit them with being the sources of the combustible. The probable cause of their abundance is, that they alone have preserved their forms, while other tissues have been disintegrated. The perfect preservation of the sporangia in the cones of fossil Lycopods,—Lepidostro- bus, Flemingites, etc.,—show how resistant to decay they are. It should also be said, that in some cases the spores of plants may have accumulated in local masses, like the masses of seeds and nuts in the lignites of Brandon, Vermont, and of Saltzhau- sen in Germany. The annual dissemination of pollen in the cypress swamps affords no good arguments in behalf of this theory; for though for a brief moment of the year somewhat abundant, scat- tered widely by the winds, and conspicuous for its color, it has attracted attention, no one will claim that any considerable portion of the accumulations of carbonaceous matter which are now taking place in or around the cypress swamps is derived from this source. The composition of bituminous shales may be inferred from the following analyses, made from specimens taken from several geological horizons :— Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 363 1 2 3 4 a 6 Moisture, 1.10 0.86 0.75 054) == 1.10 Inorganic matter, 87.10 | 84.60] 78.29} 83.17] 79.386 | 76.00 Volatile combustible do. 6.90); 8.36) 14.12] 8.26) 12.60]: 11.30 Fixed Carbon, . 4.90} 6.18) 6.84] 8.03) 8.04] 11.60 100.00 100.00 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 No 1. Cleveland Shale, Carboniferous, Cleveland, Ohio, (Wormley. ) No. 2. Huron Shale, Monroeville, Ohio, - - - (Wormley. ) No. 3. Hudson River Shale, Savannah, Ills., - - (Chandler. ) No. 4, Utica Shale, Dubuque, Iowa, - - - (Chandler. ) No. 5 Bs “Collingwood, Canada, - - (Hunt. ) No. 6. Genesee Shale, Bozanquet, ‘‘ - : (Hunt. ) The relations of the bituminous shales to the cannel coals are very intimate; indeed they may be said to be but different phases of the same substance, as they have been formed in simi- Jar conditions, and shade into each other by insensible grada- tions. I have suggested a theory to explain the origin of cannel coal, which supposes it to be composed of the completely ma- cerated parenchymatous tissue of plants, accumulated in lagoons or water-basius in the coal-marshes. The water of such lagoons in our present peat-bogs, and of streams flowing from them, is coffee-brown in color, from the carbonaceous particles dissemi- nated through it. These, subsiding in basins of quiet water, form a carbonaceous mud which, when dried, is not unlike can- nel coal. Where transported by streams, and mingled with a preponderance of earthy matter, the equivalent of bituminous shales is produced. In the Carboniferous age, lke causes pro- duced like effects; and cannel coal is found holding such rela- tions to cubical coal (ancient peat) and to bituminous shales, that we can plainly read their closely connected histories. In attributing the carbonaceous matter of cannels to macerated cellular plant-tissue, I would not be understood to exclude the microscopic alge and protophytes (desmids and diatoms) from I B04 Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. all participation in the process of their formation ; and we must concede not only the possibility but the probability that the streams, lakes, and shallow bays, where the cannel and bitu- minous shales accumulated—in former times as now—were crowded with the microscopic forms of plant-life, which left a residuum with the disintegrated tissue of the larger plants. The cannels as a whole differ from cubical coals not only in physical structure,—lacking the lamination and pitchy bril- lancy, as well as containing more ash,—but in chemical compo- sition, since they yield a larger amount of volatile matter—guases and oils—and gases which have higher illuminating power. This, which is true of all cannels, is conspicuously so of the Torbane Hill cannel of England and the ‘‘ Hartley mineral,” ‘‘Wollongongite,” from Australia. For example, the best cu- bical caking coals, such as are generally employed for the manu- facture of gas, like the Pittsburgh or Westmoreland coals (and which are preferred, as they yield a fair volume of good gas and leave an excellent coke), furnish about 10,000 cubic feet of gas to the ton, while the cannels yield as much as 12,000 cubic feet, and the Wollongongite 15,000. These differences are doubtless in part due to the kind of vegetation from which the carbona- ceous material was derived; the parenchymatous tissue probably furnishing more volatile matter than the lgneous, and the alge perhaps more than the plants higher in the botanical scale. Wecan imagine, also, that certain plant-tissues which have contributed to the formation of such deposits as the Aus- tralian shale, may have been impregnated with hydro-carbons elaborated by vital processes, such as the resins. ‘These must, however, be extreme and rare cases, and the differences between various coals and carbonaceous shales are probably differences of degree rather than of kind. , ‘The spontaneous emission of carburetted hydrogen and petro- leum from bituminous shales is so general that hundreds of lo- calities might be cited where it may be observed; indeed a belt of oil-wells and gas-springs marks the line of outcrop of each of these beds of bituminous shale of whatever geological age. The organic portion of the shales, like all other organic matter, being in a state of unstable equilibrium, is constantly decom- posing, either by direct and complete oxidation, or by a sort of = ae ee Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 360 distillation through which the end is reached in a series of moye or less distinct steps; that is, a fractional distillation results in the formation of evolved products, liquid or gaseous, which are slowly but constantly generated, and are, for the most part, immediately liberated, rising to the surface by hydrostatic press- ure. Usually we find in the shales only the material out of which the volatile hydrocarbons can be manufactured ; and as these are rapidly dissipated when formed, hand specimens and even larger exposed masses rarely show them; but in a great number of localities petroleum is found saturating the shale, betraying its presence by its characteristic odor when the rock is freshiy broken ; and it is sometimes present in such quantity as to form an oily film when fragments are thrown into water. Porous and shattered rocks which overlie the black shales are often the reservoirs which receive the evolved products of their spontaneous distillation ; and here we find all the great. stores of petroleum which supp'y the extensive commercial and industrial operations based upon it. I have elsewhere discussed the genesis of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen from these shales, and it is not necessary to treat the subject at length here. ‘The hydro- carbons which have become so important in the economy of civilization, have been attributed by some to the action of in- organic causes. By others, who agree with me in ascribing them to an organic source, they have been regarded as emana- tions from other rocks than the bituminous shales; but no examples of the occurrence of these hydrocarbons in nature, except in connection with organic substances, are known ; and as a matter of fact, no considerable accumulation of petroleum has been discovered except in close relationship with this group of carbon-bearing rocks. They are the great repositories of the materials from which the gaseous and volatile hydrocarbons can be produced, and we may say the only ones. ‘I'hey claim our interest, therefore, as the apparent source of the liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons which are of economic importance ; and we must not only credit them with all the benefits conferred upon society by the excellent illuminator now furnished to every family at so low a price, but we must look to them as the source of supply of this necessity, as we may call it, when in the not distant future the stores produced by nature’s processes / 366 Origin of Curbonaceous Shales. shall have been exhausted, and we are compelled to manufac- ture petroleum for ourselves, using nature’s material, but sub- stituting our quick for her slow methods. Hither the minute division of the carbonaceous matter con- tained in bituminous shales, and its distribution through a preponderating mass of inorganic material, or some inherent peculiarity of the plant-tissue which has furnished it, makes it more prone to spontaneous distillation than the pure and com- pacted hydrocarbons which form coal; for the evolution of the gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons from the shales is more con- spicuous than from beds of coal, though noticeable in both ; and the shales, though quite black when freshly broken, soon become brown by exposure even in the cabinet. Where sub- jected to the combined action of sun, air and moisture, they rapidly lose the carbon at the surface, and ultimately show only the ashen-grey color of their inorganic constituents. The occurrence of iron pyrites in bituminous shales may be regarded as one of their characteristic features, and nothing is more common than to find the rock along certain lines thickly set-with small, often spheroidal, and sometimes beautifully erys- talized, concretions of pyrite. It is also the material by which organisms of various kinds, shells, bones, wood and the tissue of sea-weeds, are often replaced. ‘The origin of the pyrites is probably due to sulphates,—sulphate of lime, etc.,—decomposed by the oxidation of organic matter. The original source of the sulphur is perhaps beyond our reach, but we know that sulphates are constantly present in sea water, and that sulphur exists in organic combination in sea-weeds, these liberating sulphuretted hydrogen sometimes abundantly in their decay. It is not at all uncommon, also, to find concretions of impure carbonate of lime imbedded in bituminous shales. In the Huron shale on the Huron River, at Monroeville, and in the same formation north and east of Columbus, Ohio, such concretions are quite numerous and sometimes large,—eight or ten feet in diameter. They have evidently been slowly formed in place by segregation, and often surround the bones of gigantic fishes (Dinichthys), which have served as nuclei for the concretionary action. The lime may have existed as carbonate in solution, or as sul- phate which was decomposed by decaying vegetable matter. Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 367 Tron is almost omnipresent, under such circumstances usually in the form of carbonate; and the formation of concretions of carbonate of lime and pyrites would naturally follow the min- gling of decaying organic matter with sulphate of lime and carbonate of iron. The decomposition of the pyrites, so abundant in bituminous shales, seems to be the chief source of the chemical action which results in the formation of the mineral springs that issue from these shales in so many localities. The outcrops of the Utica and Hamilton black shales are marked by the emission of sulphur waters, as they are by gas-springs and oil-springs, in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, etc.; and it is also true that the great black shales of the Colorado group in the Far West exhibit the same phenomena. Carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, are particularly notice- able, as the gaseous emanations from such sources. ‘The solid precipitates include chloride of sodium and various salts of lime, iron, magnesia, etc. Among the published papers which have reference to the origin of cannel coals and bituminous shales, the following may be consulted :— On the Formation of Cannel Coal; J. 8. Newberry, Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIII (1857), p. 212. The Rock Oils of Ohio; J. 8. Newberry, Ohio Agric. Report, for 1859. On the Chemical and Geological History of Bituminous Shales; Dr. T. S. Hunt, Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX XV (1863), paxto7. The Black Shale; Prof. J. M. Safford, Geol. of Tennessee, 1869, p. 329. The Huron Shale; J. 8. Newberry, Geol. Survey of Ohio, Vol. I, 1863, pp. 107 to 158; Vol. III, 1878, p. 13, ete. A Source of the Bituminous Matter in the Devonian and Sub- Carboniferous Black Shales of Ohio; Prof. E. Orton, Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIV (1882), p. 171. 368 Two New Species of Zonites. XXII.—Description of Two New Species of Zonites from Tennessee. BY THOMAS BLAND. Read May 2lst, 1883. Zonites Wheatleyi, nov. sp. T. umbilicata, depressa, tenuis, nitens, pellucida, fusculo-cornea, de- licate striatula ; spira sub-planulata; sutura leviter impressa; anfr. 44, convexiusculis, ultimus basi convexior, ad aperturam rapide accrescens, vix descendens ; umbilicus pervius; apertura depressa, oblique lunaris ; peristoma simplex, acutum, marginibus approximatis, callo tenui junctis. Fig. I. Shell umbilicated, depressed, thin, shining, pellucid, brownish horn-colored, finely striated; spire subplanulate, suture slightly impressed ; whorls little convex, the last more convex at the base, rapidly increasing at the aperture, scarcely descending; umbilicus pervious; aperture de- pressed, obliquely lunate ; peristome simple, acute, the - margins approximating, joined by a thin callus. Diam., major 5, min. 34; Alt., 2 mill. Z. Wheatleyi. Habitat.—Vhe Cliffs, Knoxville, Tennessee, Mrs. George Andrews ; also, Tiverton, Rhode Island, J. D. Thomson. Remarks.—This, with the following species, was discovered and communicated to me, in 1879, by Mrs. Andrews, who thus described the locality in which the two species were found :— «The Cliffs rise up 200 feet on the south side of the river,— they are very steep and rocky, face the north, are almost always shady, damp, and covered with mosses and ferns. I collected the shells on the ledges of the rocks among the dead leaves, at an elevation above the river of about 100 feet. I have not found either of the species in any other locality.” Mr. J. H. Thomson, to whom I submitted specimens, sent to me examples of the same species collected by him, ‘‘on a high rocky ledge, covered with old trees, at Tiverton, Rhode Island.” Two New Species of Zonites. 369 This species, Z. Wheatley?, is more nearly allied to Z. viridu- lus, Mke, than to any other North American form, but differs from it, especially in the form of aperture, in the descending last whorl], and in haying a wider umbilicus. I dedicate the species to the memory of my late valued and lamented friend, Chas. M. Wheatley. ‘Zonites petrophilus, nov. sp. T. late umbilicata, depresso-subglobosa, tenuis, nitens, translucens, albida, irregulariter striata; sutura mediocris ; anfr. 53—6, convexiusculis, ulti- mus convexior, non descendens ; umbilicus extus late excavatus, perspecti- vus ; apertura rotundato-lunaris ; peristoma simplex, paululo subincrassa- tum, szepe roseum, margine columellari reflexiusculo. Fig. TI. Shell broadly umbilicate, depressed; subglobose, thin, shining, translucent, whitish, irregularly striated ; su- ture moderately impressed; whorls 53—6, rather convex, the last more convex, not descending; umbilicus widely excavated externally, pervious; aperture roundly lu- nate; peristome simple, somewhat thickened, often rose-colored, the columellar margin slightly reflected. Diam., major 6, min. 5,—54; Alt. fere 3 mill. Z. petrophilus. Habitat.—The Cliffs, Knoxville, Tennessee, found with Z. Wheatleyi, Mrs. Geo. Andrews. Remarks.—This species is, in general form, nearly allied to Z. arboreus, but the color is different, the striz are more de- veloped, and the umbilicus is much wider. My friend, Mr. W. G. Binney, examined the dentition of Z. petrophilus, and favored me with notes on the subject. He found the teeth 15—1—15, with two perfect laterals, one only on each side. Z. viridulus has the same number of laterals, but many more marginals. I would express my deep obligation to Mrs. Andrews for her uniform kindness and liberality in supplying me, during many, years, with numerous rare and interesting species. 370 Land Shells from Porto Rico. Description of Two Species of Land Shells from Porto Rico, W. I. BY PROFESSOR EDWARD V. MARTENS. [Communicated by Thomas Bland. | Read May 21st, 1883. Note sy TuHos. BLAND. In 1882 I forwarded to Prof. v. Martens several shells re- ceived long since from my late friend, Mr. Robert Swift, col- lected, I believe, in Porto Rico, and which I was unable satisfactorily to determine. I had submitted the shells to Mr. G. W. Tryon, Jr., asking him to compare them with specimens in the Swift Collection, the property of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Mr. Tryon found no similar forms in the Academy collections, but pointed out the alliance of one of the species with Chondro- poma Tortolense, Pfr., especially with specimens so labelled, from the island of Anegada:—of this I informed Prof. v. Mar- tens, when presenting the shells to the Berlin Zéological Mu- seum. In my correspondence with Prof. v. Martens, I mentioned that I was preparing notes on the Geographical Distribution of the Land Shells of the West Indies, with complete lists of the species of each island. He was kind enough to forward to me the descriptions subjoined, for insertion in my proposed paper. The completion of that paper has, from various causes, been delayed; but I deem it desirable that the publication of the contribution of Prof. v. Martens should be no longer postponed. Land Shells from Porto Rico. 371 Cistula consepta, nov. sp. Testa ovato-conica, umbilicata, verticaliter confertim tenuiter et inszequa- liter lamellata, pallide brunnea, fasciis compluribus rufis ornata ; anfr. 7, priores duo leves, sequentes 4 regulariter crescentes, convexi, sutura pro- funda, ulringue prolongationibus lamellarum albis consepta; anfractus ultimus in } peripherie solutus, oblique descendens ; apertura subverticalis, fere ovata ; peristoma duplex, externum late expansum, subundulatum, rufo- maculatum, internum distincte porrectum. Operculum paucispirum, oblique radiatim striatum. Longitudo 13; diam. 83 ; aperture longitudo, incluso peristomate externo, 6, latitudo 53; excluso, 4 et 2} mill. Porto Rico. R. Swift. Chondropoma Tortolense, Pfr. (Mon. Pneum., Suppl. I, p. 142.) Var. Major. Testa paulum majore, fere unicolore, denticulis suturee paulo magis pro- minentibus et magis fasciculatis, peristomatis externi lobo superiore et lobo columellari majoribus, distinctius pliculosis. Longitudo 18 ; diameter 18 ; aperture longitudo, incluso peristomate 7 ; latitudo 6; excluso, 5 et 4 mill. Porto Rico. 372 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. XXIV.—Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. BY ARTHUR H. ELLIOTT. Read March 5th, 1883. In many manufactories and metallurgical works, it is often of great service to be able to make rapid analyses of the gases resulting from various operations, as these analyses serve to con- trol the operations and indicate the progress of the processes. This is especially true for iron and steel works, where a know- ledge of the composition of the gases from a furnace is an index of the character of the changes going on inside the furnace. Such rapid analyses are also often needed in gas-works. ‘To meet this requirement of technical works, many methods have been devised and various ingenious forms of apparatus have been constructed. But all the appliances used for this purpose have been based upon the principle of absorbing the various - gases In a mixture by liquid reagents. Of the many methods of using liquid reagents, that of Orsat is probably the best known, and the one that has been most used. In this apparatus the gas, after being measured, is made to pass into vessels contain- ing the liquid reagents, and so arranged as to expose a large surface, wet with the reagent, to the mixture of gases. If time is of little value, this apparatus works very well, but it is too slow in its action to be desirable for use in technical works. One great objection to the apparatus itself is the number of stop- cocks attached to the various parts of it. These stop-cocks be- come incrusted with the various reagents, and refuse to turn without great trouble; and any force apphed to them is apt to cause a fracture, which ruins the apparatus for further work until the damage is repaired. Instead of passing the gas into a vessel containing the chemical . reagents, Raoult* put the reagent into a tube containing the * F. M. Raouut, Compt. Rend , 1876, 844. Apparatus for Rapid Gas- Analasis. 373 gas. In treating a mixture of gases with several reagents, it is necessary to remove one reagent before adding another. This is accomplished by washing out with water in such a manner that the gas is not lost. Raoult performed this treatment of the gases and washing out of reagents, in a graduated tube with two stop-cocks, one at each end; one of the stop-cocks was sur- mounted with a funnel to introduce the fluids. But the whole affair was not gasily managed, and the gases were submitted to an unnecessary amount of washing while removing the excess of reagents used. Wilkinson modified this method, and devised a very simple and useful apparatus, in which the clumsy manipulations of Raoult were overcome by using a tube with one stop-cock above, the lower end of the tube dipping into water in another tube of much larger diameter. By this means the gases could be treated with liquid reagents, introduced through a funnel attached to the stop-cock above ; and by introducing or remoying water from the outer tube, the gas could be measured at atmospheric press- ure. ‘To facilitate the removal of liquids from the outer tube, the latter has a stop-cock attached below. But, as in the appa- ratus of Raoult, the gases are submitted to an unnecessary amount of washing when water is introduced to remove the re- agents. ‘This washing becomes very important in many cases. For example, take the case of illuminating gas. We introduce potassic hydrate solution to remove the carbonic acid, then potassic pyrogallate to remove oxygen; and now we must wash out the alkali before adding bromine to absorb the illuminants. To do this, much water is needed, and this large quantity of water will wash out some of the inant often as much as two per cent. To overcome this difficulty of excessive washing, I have de- vised the apparatus which is the subject of this paper. In this process, the gas is removed from the absorbent liquid and measured in another vessel, without washing. The apparatus is shown in Plate XXII. The tube A is of about 125 ¢.c. capacity, whilst B, although the same length, holds only 100 ¢.c. from the point D, or zero, to the mark on the capillary tube at OC, and is carefully graduated in 4, ¢. ©. 374 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. The attachments to these tubes below are seen from the drawing, except that the stop-cock J is three-way and has a delivery through its stem. The bottles A and Z hold about a pint each. The tubes A and B are connected above with one another, and also with the cylindrical funnel J, by a series of capillary tubes about one millimeter in diameter inside. There is a stop-cock at Gand another at /, while the funnel WY, which holds about 60 ¢.c., is ground to fit over the end of F aboye. At Fis a piece of rubber tubing uniting the ends of the capillary tubes, which are filed square to make them fit as closely as possible.* In beginning the analysis of a mixture of gases, the stem exit of the three-way cock J is closed by turning it so that L and A are connected through the rubber tubing; the stop-cocks and , G are opened, and water is allowed to fill the apparatus from the bottles A and L, which have been previously supplied. When the water rises in the funnel YW, and all air-bubbles have been driven out of the tubes, the stop-cocks # and G are closed, the funnel J removed, and the tube delivering the gas attached in its place.t By now lowering the bottle Z slowly, and simultaneously opening the stop-cock /, the tube A is nearly filled with gas, and the stop-cock F’is closed. The tube delivering the gas is removed, the funnel M replaced, the bottle L raised, the bottle A lowered, and by opening the stop-cock G, the gas is transferred to the graduated tube B. The bottle A is now adjusted so that the level of the water in it is the same hight as the zero-mark D on the graduated tube. By means of the bottle L, the gas is adjusted to the zero-marlk _ D in the graduated tube, and the stop-cock G is closed. * The hight of the apparatus can be diminished by having bulbs at the points of union of the capillary tubes and the absorption and measuring tubes A and B; such bulbs being of about 25 cubic centimetres capacity, and the graduations continued downwards from the bulb on the tube B. Making the funnel spherical also reduces the hight of the apparatus. - + A tube of the same construction as is shown in the explosion-burette figure can be attached to the end of the stop-cock, and thus facilitate the attachment of the rubber tubing. See H, Plate XXIII. Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. 375 The excess of gas in 4 is expelled by opening the stop cock Ff and raising the bottle ZL. The gas remaining in the capillary tube between Cand the vertical part is disregarded, or its value may be ascertained and an allowance made ; but usually it is too trifling to be worth notice. Having measured the gas, it is now transferred by means of the bottles AK and Z into the tube A, and the fluid chemicals added by placing them in the funnel M/ and allowing them to flow down the sides of the tube A slowly, care being taken never to let the fluids run below the level of the top of the vertical tube in the funnel. It is best to have a mark on the outside of the funnel at least three-fourths of an inch above the top of the level of the vertical tube, and never to draw the fluid down below this point. _ Having treated the gas with the chemical, it is transferred by means of the bottles to the tube B, to be measured. If the chemical gets into the horizontal capillary tube, the passage of a little water from the bottle A will remove it, before transfer- ring the gas. When the gas residue is in B, and the fluid of A has been adjusted at the mark (on the horizontal tube, the —stop-cock G is closed, the bottle A’ is lowered till the level of liquid in it and in the tube B are the same, and the reading is then made. ‘The tube 4A is now filled with the chemical just used as absorbent, and water; by turning the stem of the three- way cock J, so that it communicates with A, and is open below, and by also opening the stop-cock F’, the contents of the tube ean be run out, and water added through the funnel I to clean the tube for a new absorption. When the tube is clean, by turn- ing the stop-cock J, so that A and Z are connected, the water is forced into A, and the whole is ready to receive the gas in B for new treatment. In using the apparatus, the chemicals are added in the fol- lowing order :— 1. Potassic Hydrate (1 in 20) to absorb carbonic acid. If illu- minating gas is under examination, a very little of the reagent will be necessary, and it is better to use a solution of potassic hydrate of four times the above strength, in order to prevent 376 Apparatus for Rapid Gas- Analysis. washing out of the illuminants. For traces of carbonie acid, and also for the determination of sulphurous acid and sulphur- etted hydrogen, special methods are necessary. 2. Bromine, to absorb illuminants. ‘This is added to some water placed in the funnel. It is best handled with a very small pipette, since only a few drops are necessary. Add it till the tube is filled with its vapor; then absorb the vapor with potassic hydrate used for carbonic acid. 3. Potassic Pyrogallate, to absorb oxygen. Solution of po- tassic hydrate (1 in 8), containing about three per cent. of pyrogallic acid. 4. Cuprous Chloride, to absorb carbonic oxide. This is a solution (1 in 4) in concentrated hydrochloric acid. After using it, and dJefore transferring the gas to the measuring-tube, a little water is added to absorb the acid vapors. By this method, a mixture containing carbonic acid, oxygen, illuminants and carbonic oxide, can be analyzed in from twenty to thirty minutes, according to the amount of practice the operator has had with the apparatus. Compared with Orsat’s process, the work can be done with the above-described apparatus in one-fourth the amount of time, and with identical results. The water used in the apparatus should have the same tem- perature as the room in which the analysis is made; and by careful handling, little or none of the chemicals: get into the bottle Z. When working ina warm place, the tube & should be surrounded with a water-jacket to prevent change of volume in the gas while under treatment. * Having added the above absorbents, the residue of gas may . consist of hydrogen, marsh-gas, and nitrogen; and for the de- termination of these, I have devised a simple form of explosion- burette, shown in Plate XXIII. It consists of a burette, D, of * Whenever possible, it is better to collect the gas in tubes and transfer it to the apparatus in a position away from sources of heat. Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. B77 heavy glass, graduated in tenths of cubic centimetres, and hold- ing one hundred cubic centimetres to within about two inches of the lateral tube, #, below; the upper end is closed by a stop-cock, &, over which fits a funnel, A, in the same manner as in the apparatus described above. The graduations on the tube are made so that the stop-cock is the zero point, and the 100 mark is below, near the lateral tube, 7. Into the upper end of the burette, at C, are fused two plati- num wires for an ignition-spark. At the lower end of the burette, the glass is drawn out to receive, at /, a piece of soft rubber tubing about three feet long, which in turn communi- cates with the aspirator bottle, G. Care should be taken that the opening of /' and the tubulature of the bottle, G, are not smaller than the bore of the rubber tubing used to connect them, since any contraction would prevent the cushioning of the explosion when the spark is passed.* The bent piece, 4, is ground to fit over the stop-cock, 6, when the funnel, A, is re- moved, and facilitates the transfer of the gases from the ab- sorption-burette before described, as it is easier to slip a piece of rubber tubing over the smooth end of H than over the ground _end of the stop-cock, B. The stop-cock, and also the fitting, H, \have capillary tubing of about one millimetre bore. The stop-cock at /, and its tube attaching it to the burette, are of ordinary size, about one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch. The operation of the burette is as follows :— The funnel is removed from the absorption-burette of the previously described apparatus, and a fitting exactly ike # is substituted for it. The gas should be previously transferred to the measuring-tube of the absorption-apparatus. The explosion- burette is placed in a vertical position in a stand near the ab- sorption-apparatus. The bent tube on the upper stop-cock of -* Tt is also most important that the clamp holding the burette should not hold too tightly, as pressure upon the glass will cause a fracture on explod- ing the gases. It is better to use a spring clamp. 378 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. the absorption-apparatus is now attached to a piece of rubber tubing long enough to reach to the corresponding bent tube of the explosion-burette’ The aspirator-bottle, G, is filled with water, and by raising it and opening the stop-cock, B, and clos- ing H, the explosion-burette is filled with water, including the bent tube, H, fitted over the end of the stop-cock, B. By a similar movement of the aspirator-bottle attached to the absorb- tion-apparatus, the corresponding bent tube and its rubber tube are also filled with water. Care should be taken that the water completely expels all air-bubbles from the capillary tubes and the rubber tube, The explosion-burette is now attached to the ab- sorption-burette by means of the rubber tubing already filled with water, by slipping this rubber tubing over the bent tube of the explosion-burette ; taking care to exclude all «air-bubbles when making the attachment. To facilitate the connecting of the bent tubes and the rubber tubing, the ends of these tubes should be 5) drawn ont so that the rubber tubing will easily slip over them. Having connected the explosion-burette with the absorption- apparatus in the manner described above, we are now ready to transfer the gas-mixture for the explosion. For this purpose, the three-way cock of the absorption-apparatus is turned so that the bottom of the absorption-tube is closed. By now opening - the stop-cocks above on the absorption-apparatus, and also on the explosion-burette, and by moving the aspirator-bottles, any desired quantity of gas can be transferred from the absorption apparatus to the explosion-burette. When the proper quantity (about eighteen or twenty cubic centimetres is sufficient) of gas has been transferred, the stop-cocks of the absorption-apparatus are closed, also the stop-cock of the explosion-burette. By means of the aspirator-bottle, @, the level of the water is ad- justed so that the gas is at atmospheric pressure, by bringing — the level of the water in the aspirator-bottle to the same hight as that in the explosion-burette. This gives the correct reading of the quantity of gas used. We now have to mix this gas with the proper quantity of oxygen to cause an explosion on passing a spark through the wires, C. This oxygen is admitted through © the stop cock, #,—most conveniently from a gas-holder or cylin- 1 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. 379 der under pressure. Having added the proper quantity of oxygen (about equal in volume to the gas used),* the correct volume of the mixture thus obtained is read off in the same manner as that of the original gas. But before the final reading is made, the burette is removed from the stand, and by a few movements from vertical to horizontal positions, the gases are mixed, and any oxygen that collects in the tube, #, is removed to the bulk of the gases in the upper part of the burette. Having taken the final reading of the mixture, the upper part of the tube is tapped slightly to dislodge any water adhering to the platinum wires, and the spark from an induction coil is passed between them, the aspirator-bottle being below the level of /, in order to expand the mixture. A sharp click is now heard, and the tube is allowed to stand so that the heat of the explosion may pass away before reading the contraction. When the tube is cool, the reading is taken by lifting the aspirator-bottle as before. This reading gives the contraction, and by removing the bent tube and replacing the cylindrical funnel, 4, the carbonic acid resulting from the explosion may be absorbed with potassic hy- drate, as in the absorption-apparatus, the readings always being . taken after adjusting the levels of the liquids in the burette and the aspirator-bottle. When removing the bent tube and attaching the cylindrical funnel, care should be taken that the air in the capillary tube of the stop cock is removed. This is accomplished by attaching the funnel, putting into it a little potash solution, and then in- serting « piece of thin copper wire into the capillary tube of the stop-cock ; by this means the air-bubbles are readily removed. Like the absorption-apparatus previously described, this explo- sion-burette is intended for rapid work where some accuracy is sacrificed to the saving of time. It has the great advantage that the explosion can be made over water—the long piece of rubber tubing acting as a cushion to the shock. I have used this burette for over a year, and with the most satisfactory results. * Tf the gas mixture contains little or no nitrogen, it is better to add half the volume of oxygen and one volume of atmospheric air, to moderate the force of the explosion. 380 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. It is only intended to be used with mixtures of gases, containing hydrogen, marsh-gas, and nitrogen,—the other ordinary consti- tuents being determined in the absorption-apparatus. The following formulas are used in calculating the results of the explosion of a mixture of hydrogen, marsh-gas and nitrogen, or hydrogen and nitrogen. Let C = Contraction. D = Carbonic Acid : then,— a Obese 0) ———— = Hydrogen. 3 and D = Marsh-gas. In the case of hydrogen and nitrogen the above formula be- comes simply eae —- = Hydrogen. 3 ‘ These calculations give the quantities of the above gases found in the number of cubic centimetres of gas-residue used in the explosion; it is of course necessary to calculate these upon the total amount of residue left in the absorption-burette. ‘The ni- trogen is found by adding together the figures for the other constituents of the gas and subtracting their sum from one hun- dred. ; ‘The subjoined table illustrates the character of the mixtures of gases that can be analyzed with the above-described apparatus. Carbonic Acid 3.4 7.3 0.0 0.7 Iluminants — — 6.3 15.6 Oxygen 0.0 1.0 3 ie), Carbonic Oxide 40.2 29.8 6.0 8.5 Hydrogen 44.9 55.8 — 13.0 _Marsh-gas —- 0.0 _ 33.8 Nitrogen 11.50 6.1 — 26.9. With care, and a little practice with the apparatus, results are obtained within a few tenths of a per cent. of the truth, and this at an immense saving of time over the older methods of analysis —the results answering every ordinary purpose in gas and metal- lurgical works. After some practice, a complete gas-analysis, using the absorption-apparatus and explosion-burette, can be made in less than an hour. School of Mines, New York, 1888. Descriptions of New Species of Birds. 381 XXV.—Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Genera Chrysotis, Formicivora and Spermophila. BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. Read May 28th, 1863. i. Chrysotis canifrons. The general coloring is green, the abdomen washed with bluish, the feathers of the hind neck edged with black, and those of the throat mixed with yellow ; the front, the chin, and the upper part of the throat, are gray- ish ash ; this color is bordered on the crown with dull pale yellow ; sides of the head dull yellow ; the primaries are deep blue, with a speculum of bright scarlet ; the bend of the wing is clear yellow, marked with scarlet next the body ; thighs gray ; tail-feathers green, ending rather broadly with light greenish yellow ; the basal portions of the feathers are yellow for half their length, and are marked with red ; the outer feather is bluish on the outer web ; bill whitish horn-color, with the tip dusky ; feet dark gray. Dimensions approximately ; length, 14 inches ; wing, 9; tail, 6. Habitat, Island of Aruba, West Indies. Remarks.—The above-described parrot was brought alive, by our associate, Dr. A. A. Julien, in the spring of 1882, when he returned from the islands of Curagao, Buen Ayre and Aruba. He obtained it at Aruba, and thinks it occurs in abundance on Buen Ayre (no specimens, however, were procured there), but is not found on Curagao. I saw this parrot soon after his return, and took notes of its plumage, and also of its dimensions, as well as I could from a living bird, though it was very gentle. I considered it an un- described species, but deferred publishing an account of it, for the sake of a further examination, agd to see if any change would take place in its plumage, especially in the ashy coloring 382 Descriptions of New Species of Birds. of the front and chin, though I thought it to be fully adult. It was left in charge of a bird-dealer in Brooklyn, L. I., from whom I exacted the promise, that-in case of its death he would take it to Mr. John Akhurst, to whom I had given directions to preserve the skin. Unfortunately, it died during the summer, but the skin was not saved. Therefore, I have had to rely on my notes, which I was pleased to find gave quite a satisfactory account of its plumage. The most marked difference from its allies seems to be, the ashy front and chin, and these the dealer assured me did not change at all in coloring while it lived. . 2. Formicivora griseigula. The upper plumage is of a deep, rather bright, ferruginous ; the front, lores and crown are brownish ; the tail-feathers are dull black, crossed with waving bars of very pale dull ferruginous; these bars are of about half the width of the black interspaces, and are eleven in number; the quills are dark liver-brown ; their edges and the wing coverts are rufous, like the back ; the inner edges of the quills are of a very pale salmon-color ; the sides of the head are blackish ; the shafts of the ear-coverts are white ; the chin and throat are dark gray, a little lighter in color on the former; the breast, abdomen and under tail-coverts are of a light dull rufous; the bill and feet black. Length (skin’, 5$ inches; wing, 22; tail, 22; tarsus, 7; bill, we Habitat, British Guiana. Type in my collection. Remarks.—By its general dark coloration. gray throat and barred tail, this bird is readily distinguished from all others of the genus. &o- Spermophila parva. Female. Upper plumage of a light, warm, earthy-brown, a little deeper in color on the crown, and brighter under and behind the eyes ; the throat is grayish-white ; rest of the under parts of a very light shade of brown, whitish on the middle of the abdomen ; the smaller and middle wing-coverts are dark brown, the latter ending with whitish ; the larger coverts are also dark brown and marginedewith whitish; quills dark umber-brown ; the outer tertials edged with light fulvous, the inner with whitish ; tail, umber- Descriptions of New Species of Birds. 383 brown, ending with dull white; ‘iris brown; bill light-brownish; feet dark grayish-ash.” Length (skin), 33 inches; wing, 2; tail, 18; tarsus, 3. Habitat, Mexico, Tehuantepec City. Type in National Mu- ~seum, Washington. Remarks.—I have had this specimen for several years, and have delayed its description, hoping to get the male. It was obtained by Prof. Sumichrast, to whom I wrote requesting him to try to procure the male. As he left that part of Mexico, and is now deceased, I have thought best to describe it. It somewhat resembles the female of S. minuta, but is distinguished from it by the smaller size, lighter color and whitish throat, and by having the wing-coverts, tertials and tail-feathers edged with whitish; the bill is not half the size of that of S. minuta. May 2¢5th, 1883. 384 Observations of the Transit of Venus. XXVI.— Observations of the Transit of Venus, December 6. 1882. BY J. K. REES, Director of the Observatory of Columbia College, N. Y. City. Read December 11, 1882. The station occupied was the roof of the unfinished Observa- tory of Columbia College, where the telescope was placed at the southwest corner. ‘This roof is extraordinarily strong and solid. The beams are of iron, 12 inches in depth; and solid brick arches spring from beam to beam. ‘The hight of the roof from the street is about 110 feet, and the walls supporting it are four feet thick. An unobstructed view was had of the whole transit. The position of the instrument was a few feet only from the centre of the old Observatory ; so that we may take the longi- tude and latitude of our instrument from the American Ephe- meris. Latitude, + 40° 45’ 23”.1. Reduction to Geocentric Lat., —11’ 22”.7. Log. p = 9.999384. Longitude— Pity S33 From Washington, — 0 12 18.40. ODS From Greenwich, -+ 4 55 53.69. The time-pieces used were a mean-time chronometer, No. 1853, made by Parkinson & Frodsham, of London, England, and a sidereal chronometer, No. 1564, made by Negus & Co., of New York City. Observations of the Transit of Venus. 389 The instrument used in the observations was an equatorially mounted refractor, made by Alvan Clark & Sons. Aperture, 5.09 inches; focal length of object-glass, 74.3 inches. The magnifying powers used were 48 on first contact ; 165 on second and third contacts; 95 on fourth contact. The telescope was moved by clock-work, and was similar in all respects to the instruments made for the transit of Venus expeditions of 1874. In making chronometer comparisons, the sidereal chronome- ter was left at the College, and the mean-time chronometer was carried to the instruments on which signals were to be received. CHRONOMETER COMPARISONS. December 5th, P. M., at the College. NeGus, Sidereal. P. & F. Mean-Time. h. m. Ss i mM. al 39 14.0 = 4 26 15.0 ple yy, 42 4.5 Ho ros) we) t S December 5th, P. M., at 42d Street Depot. West’n Union Time Signals Mean-Time Chronometer. P. & F. in N. Y. City Hall time. - 4] 0.0 = 4 45 2.0 4 42 0.0 = 4 44 2.1 4 43 0.0 — + 45 2.0 4 44 0.0 —— 4 46 2.0 4 45 0.0 = + 47 2.0 December 5th, P. M., at the College. Necus, Sidereal. P. & F. Mean-Time. 22 20 TB 5 q 25.0 22 23 LES O yy Sis 10 15.0 22 26 BOLO Hae 5 13 26.5 386 Observations of the Transit of Venus. December 5th Ne«Gus, Sidereal. 1 54 10.0 , P. M., at the College. P. & F. Mean-Time. 8 40 32.0 2 0 9.0 = 8 46. 30.0 December 6th Neaus, Sidereal. 13 23 42.5 , A. M., at the College. P. & F. Mean-Time. -- 8 8 10.0 13 29 33.9 = 8 14 0.0 At Western Union Build Reception of the ing, Broadway and Liberty Street: Washington 'Time-Signals. P. & F., Mean-Time Chronometer, Washington Signals. lost — 30sec. = 11 56 30.0 12 11 14.0 = min. = 11 57 0.0 12 11 44.0 = 30sec. = 11 57 30.0 12 12 lost = min. = 11 58 0.0 12 12 44.0 = 30sec = 11 58 30.0 12 13 14.0 = min. = 11 59 0.0 12 13 44.0 — 30sec. = 11 59 30.0 12 14 14.0 = min.— 12 O° “ey e0s0 December 6th Negus, Sidereal. 18 18 46.5 18 21 22.0 18 24 12.5 , P. M., at the College: ; P. & F. Mean-Time. = il 2 20.0 == 1 4) 0.0 = 1 7 50.0 December 7th, A. M., at the College: Negus, Sidereal. 16 9 d4.5 16 12 50.0 16 21 56.5 P. & F. Mean-Time. = 10 49 00.0 = 10 d2 50.0 = Ill iL 50.0 December 7th, A. M., at Western Union Building. Western Union Time Signals P. & F. Mean-Time. in N. Y. City Hall time. 11 50 0.0 11 51 0.0 iat d3 0.0 = Il 52 La = Il D3 1.6 = Ill dd is Last comparison by Mr. Hamblet. Observations of the Transit of Venus. 387 December 7th, P. M., at Western Union Building. Reception of the Washington Time-Signals. P. & F., M. T. Chronometer. Washington Signals. lost = 30sec. = 11 56 30.0 LOSste i e— Tae —a eee Te a 0.0 lost = 30sec. — 11 ay 30.0 12 12 S27) SS mains Y=) 1D. 58 0.0 lastene——is URSeeG. en ——i an lul 58 30.0 oi Tani ——) 1 59 0.0 12 IS 4BiGe == SO Rees Sal 59 30.0 12 1A S365 == AGN — Fr 0 0.0 December 7th, P. M., at the College: NeGus, Sidereal. P. & F., Mean-Time. 19 14 25.0 = 1 53 55.0 19 20 6.0 — Leg 59 39.0 The Western Union time-signals sound the local time of the New York City Hall. The assumed longitude of the City Hall from Washington is — 12m. 10.4%s. Mr. Hamblet, in charge of the system, gives the errors of his clock and signals as follows:— December 5th, N. Y. City Hall, noon, 1.11 sec. fast. 66 6th, (x9 66 1.35 66 ne 7th, ef % 1.41 ys Prof. Wm. Harkness, of the Executive Committee of the Transit of Venus Commission, has kindly furnished me with the corrections to the Washington clock-signals, as follows:— December 4th, correction = — _ 0.24 sec. i 5th, oe = — 0.47 sec. We - 6th, ee = — = 0.22 sec. ay Tth, Ge iG eesece These corrections refer the time to the centre of the old dome, from which all longitudes are counted. 388 Observations of the Transit of Venus. P.&F. Chr, Col. Coll. . 2, Un-| MT corrected. | Corrected.* PHENOMENA. REMARKS. [agen ssi ‘h. m. s. Faint clouds before the Sun} 9 9 30 | 9 7 35 ( I. Contact. Notch plainly on, . . 910 44 | 9 8 49 |. Mag. power, 48. Est. Im. Light thro’ Venus's atmos- | late. phere, oan : 9 23°55 | 9° 22) 10 Ditto, beautifully seen, : 9 26 15 | 9 24 20 NOG Yel, icicat) yp yesw or Oeee Deal MBAtdoe | II. Contact. On (no drop?) 2). = | 19" 30/ 49) ASK a: power, 165. Good obs. OClearlyony 8 ay CAO SR PaO eae co Preceding limb of Venus | quite dark . . 2 50 28 | 2 48 33 |) ; Black border at preceding | A very peculiar phenom- limb extends to following { enon, limb; 3. e s e eoo pala Ar ole Gaia Faint show of ‘‘drop,” . 258 56 12 52) 2 | III. Contact. TRANS eNC Ys cueK 1 ace ear 254 9 | 2 52 14 ee power, 165. Good obs. Notryet: fee ets 313 19 | 3 11 24 \ IV. Contact. Off . . . . . . . . 13 18 47) 3 11 52 8 Mas. power see f seeing. The first three contacts were observed with a Pickering solar eye-piece and a light yellow shade-glass. The last contact was observed with a re- flecting wedge. Reducing the contacts to Washington Mean Time, we have: I Contact 8 56 30.6 Est. 1 min. late. BT ae ) 16 27.6 Good observation. Ill a 2 39 55.6 Good observation. FY, 2481 58 2 59 33.6 Poor seeing. Remarks on Phenomena Observed. : I estimated the 1st contact observation as over a minute late. The light shining through Venus’s atmosphere was a fine * Norr.—The time-corrections as determined from the Washington Signals are used. Observations of the Transit of Venus. 389 sight. I should say that it first appeared to my eye when the planet was a little more than half-way on the sun, and disap- peared about a minute before the planet reached 2d contact. This line of light, marking out the portion of Venus’s disk not on the sun, changed its appearance considerably while my atten- tion was fixed upon it. I first saw a faint arc of light marking out only a few degrees of the disc not on, and farthest from, the sun. A little later, a fine semi-circular line of gold was seen; and finally, this line broadened near the sun, and could not be seen farther out, giv- ing the appearance of two wings of light. In the second case, the line of light appeared to be the con- tinuation of the dark rim of the planet. In the third case, the bases of the wings resting on the sun were plainly out of the line of the dark circumference. I watched for the repetition of these appearances between the 2d and 4th contacts, but failed to see anything. The sky between the Ist and 2d contacts was much clearer of haze than between the 3d and 4th. At 2d contact, I saw no indication of the ‘‘ black drop.” The tangency of Venus’s disk and that of the sun was well seen. During the passage of Venus over the sun’s face, I observed her disk with magnifying powers, as follows :—48—95—165—385— but saw no indications of an atmosphere. The disk of Venus did not appear to be uniform in blackness, but to be spotted with grayish or whitish matter, reminding one of patches of snow. ‘This was seen under the different maguify- ing powers used. When Venus neared the 3d contact, a very peculiar phenomenon was observed. The preceding limb of Venus was seen to be darker than the central portion. Later, the edge of the planet became of a bluish-black color around to the following limb. The phenomena connected with this were very distinct. When the planet was near 3d contact, a faint ‘black drop” was observed for a brief time. It disappeared very shortly, and 390 Observations of the Transit of Venus. the 3d contact was finely seen. ‘The 4th contact was interfered with by the haze and clouds. For assistance during the transit, I am much indebted to the civil-engineering students of the class of ’88, School of Mines. ; Nore 1.—The contact-times (corrected) differ slightly from the times given in the ‘‘ Transactions,” owing to data lately received in regard to the Washington time-signals. Note 2.—The peculiar marking on Venus’s disc, when near 38d contact, reminds me of the drawings of the markings on Jupiter’s fourth satellite, only there we have the light border on dark ground. (See Webb’s “ Celestial Objects,” p. 168, 4th edition. ) J. K. oR: ADDENDUM. I have received the following data from an amateur observer in this city, Judge Addison Brown, 233 East 48th Street. CONTACTS. OBSERVED TIME. CORRECTED. h, mM. Ss. h mM. Se I, 9 ill 21 9 8 38 not yet, 9 bl 40 9 28 D7 HI, ee PAUTAME Wineyst 9° 89) i Lg pes Mon: LL. ANNALS. IPA OOS . 1 Liege ial die Laeiiy tmvaeh orale ce Lael ar aa ey ic el (ra ro x ’ } ¢ Nom. LL: ANNALS. 07.4. @. 0 OE ae is =) | Uo ce ee Uk IEEE Le GHNEHRAL INDEX. } For all names in Botany and Zodlogy, see Index of Nomenclature, fol- ; lowing the General Index. For full titles of papers in this volume, and names of their authors, see Table of Contents. For references to apparatus, discussions, experiments, processes, and theories, on the following and kindred subjects connected with electrolysis, see Article XIX, Index to the Literature of Electrolysis, pages 313 to 349. EE PAGE. PAGE Absorbents, in gas-analysis, JAMA LOISTTE a ee a ete AI 16 373—376 | Anguilla, W. I. 118, 122, 124, . PNCHIMOIECS 9 Sosa ae Ns Do, Ll, 17 190, 191 . Holian sands of New Jersey, ANIMINYVGUANICY o 6 eae uah ose ee hy 18, ls 52, 58, 57, 58 | Ankerite,..................... 16 Aerolites,........ 2802908 298K 299) | Amorthites ese «ca. 2) steer 6, 18 - also, see Meteorites. : Antigua, W. I........ 118, 190, 191 Aajoandites: 22 io... nae ne 3, 9, 16 | Antilles, see West Indies. SATO 3.56 eee Oe RP ae TE), TUS) Ii aNoneNONAN aia) y 9k a'ca sie eile .dlaic 17 Algee, as sources of carbonaceous ANT OR URE. Wie (OIG cr een Mey ones 17 GepOsits, oye. ee. ele 308—361 | Apophyllite,................ 12, 16 PAU EMULE S = 3) = lead shores ar etbye lel 0, 11, 17 | Apparatus for gas-analysis, 372—380 ) Nimandite; enews ss. TTB LS Uae YeRGVanI (etnies BE Hale aero 8, 16 FAUT CIC ys moa St lena hak ie 12, 16 | Archean rocks of eastern New . | Analyses of bituminous shales, . .363 GCI ln rae t arudan nce eae 29—32 | of meteorites, .. .293, 294, of Staten Island.....163—168 | 300—303 | Argentiferous lead, treatment of gases, apparatus for, (OIE tect Ee a eres SUE CE gyi 81—113 Bio atoll) | VANIER NM ols og SBA cae oo ooo 17 NJUGRNESMNIC yer ait a ee bodes 6, 11, 18 | Arseniates, treated with organic Anegada, W. I........119, 185, 192 ACL SA ED OMe 2, 12, 13, 15—18 Alloys. Amalgams. Arborization of metals. Electro-chemistry. Electrolysis of various substances. Electro-metallurgy. Electro-plating. Electro-typing. Metallic precipitation. Ozone. Photo-galvanic processes. 392 PAGE INTSONIG oa carta meant pee 8, 17 Arsenides, treated with pea CLOG orc ake oie cde eS A bay i ATSENOP NGL Mars esrae eee ra ele Aruba, W. I., new bird from... sh INSIDESTUS sic He tacondeee Aa etee 5, slit 18 INSTI GETATES sa see euch os erase 290 Atacamite,...... ete ede ae 7, 12, 16 Augite Sel Seas RUE eer Pence are 12, 17 in meteorites,........... 293 Att UIMitesy np ueteane ce mama 8, 18, 16 PNY ADI ENN SU ee ee arm ree or Vs coe 16 Bahamas, age of,.......... 185, 192 Jand-shells of,........... 123 physical geography of, 118, 119 Barbadoes, W. I...... 124, 191, 192 JBarrowoley, Vis I oonnoso ea ne 118, 192 Bante Shh, eee Git ears 8, 13, 18 BanyilOcalcitesme ma amare eee se 16 TS BIS AULT Gratin thes deieo wba ais sp 292, 308 IBASCHDUIMON Meher e nee 81 REVS UH@N Teen hs BuPRAbeIe Te er mtn a 6, 11, 17 Benthienitese eee ete 3, 15, 17 Bet itch ces sis Sains ine RO MLO eR JEKOLITNN SNAIL cele aire tp Mleape tine sat er, 3 12, 18 Birds of Aruba, Wi. 0... 22.55. 381 of Buen Ayre, W. I..... 381 Ole raze: ey eres 356 of Guatemala, .......4.. 856 Of Guiana ee jee eee aoe of New Grenada, ....... 356 Oe NIE CO ae 5 Goel oo no ales 383 . of Yucatan, 245—248, 287, 288 BISMAUIG epee ens Aine eens ee 17 BNE MONON ok las Gon Goes oe a Bituminous shales, origin of, 357—367 Blacksshalestnewee se ee ieee 140 Black shale of Tennessee,...... 367 PB ORMIUCR. ale canes tee eee: 17 Boulangerite. .......... al O) alas, 17 OUGMONILCY a san cei ee ay IPF IB ONGC INTE ase Re aoe eae 6, 11, 18 IEE OUI ae as Gaeeiseay oo 4,10, 17 Erochanititersneemncleeee ase 8,13 16 Brodie’s distillation furnace, 99, 100, 108, 113 Bromine, as reagent, ..... 373, 376 BRUIT pete we eae sa US ee 16, 31 Buen Ayre, W. Ws. 22) eae S8il Galananine tii ernee eset 12, 16 Cal citer de lama sp thas cia oe 16 Cannel coals, origin of. 363, 364, 367 Index. PAGE. Carbonaceous meteorites, . .301—304 Carbonaceous shales, origin of 3857—867 Carboniferous fossils of Ohio, 296232 Caribbean sea, results of sound- IMGs iy. {5.6 eee 117, 10s Carnot, researches of in ther-“4 3 MOtics,...2> Ga eae 19—21 Cassiterite, Sete ae hays eee 4,10, 18 Celestite,: 25 {eee 8, 18, 18 Cerussité,: 0s. .22 ua eee 16 Chabazite, 2.3.56 .)2 eee 12,. 16 Chaleocite; «....:..\.scak See ie Chaleopyrite RE erie t8 8B ic 10, Chemung beds,.. .140, 148, 149, ie Chondrodite, ERS oid nisin 12, 16 Chromite, ..-.4.02/.3)0 30 eee 18 Chrysobeiyly en eee 4,10, 18 Chrysocolla, 2a ee eee 12, 16 Chrysolite).. ia: soe eee 12, 16 Chrysotile; 74 epee Test Cinnabar, ..)...34.. 43 17 Citric acid, action of upon min- erals) ooiiA. ie ace eee 1—18 Classification of meteorites, 290, 291 — Clausthalite; eee eee 3. 9, 16 Cleveland shale, Brae se 357, 360, 363 Cobaltite,.. 0.15 eee oy ll Colophonite) = ace eeee eee 5D, Lie Colorado Group,...... 307, 361, 367 Columbite 2 4sse eee Velen “lt! Composition of meteorites, 290—294, 300—303 Conodonts.2.- eee Tu ee 307 Copper, es os eee iG Coralline Limestone, ...... 149, 151 Corniferous Group,... 149, 160, 174 Jorunc ume ee 4, 10, 18 Covellite;..0o.... ae eee 3, 17 Cretaceous rocks of Staten Tslanid,’ \\.). one 170-1738 of the West Indies, 119, 188, 189 Crocoitey: SG eee 8, 138, 17 Cryolite; i.) 0S. seers Beene. (le Cryptomorphite,.......... 8, 18, 16 Cryptosiderous mcteorites...... 291 Crystalline rocks of Staten Tislari@iie pic eee 168—168 of the West Indies, ..186—188 Crystallites,.......... 291, 292, 309 Cuba, geology of,..... 117, 189, 191 land-shells of,........... 123 Culebra W..eeeee 185, 187 @uprite, so a eee 17 Cuprous chloride,............. d7G Index. PAGE. Wuredo nw Wewlesiessicees.. 122, 123 Curves of efficiency in steam CNOMIME Sea Sette cs aie. s fs 303, 304 WD AONIMNC A). ken ce he 12 ale Desilverization of lead ores, 81—113 Brodie’s method, 99, 100, 103 Faber du Faur’s method. 99, 1083—108, 113 Flack’s method ...... 95, 99 IDEF CYNIC eee eee Pa 12, 16 IDO) OSICKC Rete naar 12, 18 DY ONOMMEGS hic lke sitters eee Sars Fee 16 ID Orne) Te pean irae ea By ues Wonmmicas; WT os. 2s 25k. 118, 124 Drift, of Staten Island..... 173-175 of New Jersey.......- 00—d8 Eifel limestone................ 149 IB AMOdG ere ia ae «let severe 4, 17 HBG HENUGE a Sneha ee cials Oe eleee e L7) Kocene rocks of the West In- Chess Se aiecae eae hee 189, 190, 191 OAD) ee Sere DA Oe 31 BUM OU ea ce eke eas iat aly ems ANe ye os en slo ee 140 Explosion-burette, for gas- ~analy- SIM, 6 o's Ue ro EE eee 376—880 Faber du Faur’s furnace for de- silverizing ores, 99, 103—108, 113 IDOI ape one Ae alee 6, 11, 18 Fire-clays of Staten Island, algals 131 Flack process in desilverizing ORCC es ate = eee ae 95, 99 Flora of Staten Island......... 173 of the West Indies.. 120, 121 UM OTIGC He sons Lopate se eee 18 Rnamielimiten 2.8. fos anak 17 Furnaces for desilverizing ores, 83—113 Fusion-structures in meteorites, 289—312 Cralemitesewepiciias os esas fae 16 Gardeaw shales. 22.2... 2.4. . 307 Gas-analysis, apparatus for, 372—380 Gas-springs, origin of..... 364, 365 Genesee shale............. 307, 363 Gremthite his = sss bass @, iil, 2 ily Geology of Hudson Co., N. J., See Hudson County....... 27—712 Geology of Staten Island, N. Y., See Staten Island........ 161—182 393 PAGE. Gieséchkitienss wee an eee Yo Wik We Goethites. Si: 220s ee AL MQ), U7 Girapliterse crane tues ier. ke © alts in meteorites........ 303, 304 Guadeloupe, W. IJ.....118, 191, 192 Guatemala, birds of........... 306 Guiana, new bird from........ 382 (GAUMNMANN, oo coo boo nde 4, 10, 16 Gurhontes 75h sass eee 16 (GNA OSD DTN psa Mim la ae cs Ate aa 17 Hamilton? fossils in Ohio, 215—218, Hamilton Group, 140, 141, 145, 149, 160, 174 244 Hamilton shales.......357, 360, 367 Hausmannite.......+-52.. 558 17 Hayti, geology of, 117, 121, 189, 191 land-shells of... 122, 123, 124 Heat, mechanical equivalent of, 20, 21 Heat of meteorites. ...298, 299, 300 Helderberg fossils of Ohio, 193—211 Veimaybiter oo Py a a 17 TEI@RORAMIG. —nosescousses 6, 11, 16 JUSTO er a ene aver eel Heulandite........... 05: dl ey Holosiderous meteorites ....... 290 JnI@MNIDIGMNCIs oa ka dorccvodds 12, We Jeli oMNeNttiOgs Los soa a aes Sh, UB IL Hudson Co.,N.J., geology of, 27—72 Archean rocks of 29—32, 65 borings in......... 59, 66—T71 copper-mines in.. 33, 84, 39 drainage of.......... 64, 65 Gritty of). 1 si ep 0ing GROMOMN Oiescuacoreac 61, 62 HOSSUSPUM Es fei cote eee. le tee 49 gneissic rocks of......29, 30 jasperoid rock of... .. oo ee minerals in.......... 31, 45 serpentine rocks of ...30, 31 shell-heaps in........... 61 surface geology of....53, 61 LR ADEOMM Rie vo weke eins 3d—d0 Triassic rocks of..... 32, 50 Hudson River shale........... 363 Humus, composition of... .301, 303 Huron Group i in Michigan Walle 140 Huron shale, 140, 357, 363, 366, 367 TBI VENUE A Sy Nthere mee Mblelere 6 Oy IO) >: Ais} Hydraulic limestones of Ohio, OSSUSTOLer sey aetae ree 195—195 Hydrocarbons in _ meteoritcs, 302, 3805 394 PAGE. Hydrocarbons, natural distilla- HOMO Ieee ae nen ca 364, 365, 366 Hydrogen peioxide, accompa- INS OOM. 55 55¢cc000 66 - 22—26 Tahoe eM. So ogagueosa Oy lil,» iy Igneous rocks, comparison of with meteorites..... ... 307—3 10 Igneous rocks of New Jersey, 39—50 of the West Indies, 186, 187, 192 Jodo-citric mixture, for mineral AMAVVSISH erm ayaa eee eee 9—17 Ditracdmbe beds, 202. -4. ae 149 Hilkorehniti@is tae asieens ht Sy ches ae i), dial Wy DOUMITEN eit ane rosie toe: 6; 11, 18 Jamaica, ceology of, 117, 189—191 landeshellsiot en scuee ee 123 Jamesonite...../..... By ge a, hy Jasperoldsrock ape rere ete 32 ACHRAMISMIClS A onsets sine 6 ised aly) ISL yoARe pen ieee aye ES ike AS INGrIMeSIIGA eee ae ate aoe AL aU Klamath Lake, depositsin..... 361 Michal ch SBD SiG te GG, & 12) 8 Walorad oniteheeseen aw so tllanley sale} in meteorites............ 293 LenS IRVAMIIL, Jssa ba eeaoaes Sh le IDE HENTAI ESHOWNO a 6 toss a eon os aoe 361 ILanumMoMinWs 5 sos occp seo 6 6,11, 16 Lavas, microscopic structure of, 292, 307, 308 Lead, argentiferous, treatment of 81—113 Weprdoliticns er eee eee (Oy ial, ils) CUGITE Reka nce eee (5 Wl, sales} semcopytite ee. ara seeiae a 8, 1G Iiibethentter. jes seem Ti, U2, Limit of expansion in steam en- EAN SSAA can omitted foe 3038—3D0 lummomite ys uae Meee ee 17 Limonites of Staten Island, 172, 175—177, 181 IBilohaserinevniry Bisons aes oo anne Sea play Lower Helderberg Group, 149, 160, 174 Ijudlow bed st aseeeeree mane ee 150 Magnesite nc ire se cee Wie Bil Mase titer: sterile se eye 17 Malachite. acai ebiecieeeces 16 Wiameamite deere rere oe iy Index. PAGE. Marcasite. i... .0..0c.6 Soe ee Marcellus shale, carbon in..... 357 Marcellus shales in Ohio...... 212 233—236 LOSS iol 213, 214 204, 23), 943° 244 Marie-galante, W.1....... 118, 124 Marmolite.. 325 2 eee 31 Masonite. (cu. 5.2.) oeeee Capel mtbr) Maxville limestone of Ohio. 219 fossils of ....... 219, 226 Mechanical equivalent of heat, eee 21 Melaconite::. 2.2. eee eee AO ale Menaccanite, 2-5. see A OK eat Mercury... :..:.4 Ste eee Oi oulaa MeESolites hs .c02 ine GPE aanG Metallurgy of silver-bearing lead and zinc ores............ 81—113 Metals, solution of ve organic acids = sieves 5 ake 2 13 Metamorphic rocks of the West INS! 030 ae eee 187, 188. of Staten Island..... 163168 Meteorites: . 2)... 289—312 analyses of, 293, 294, 300—303 Canon ine 3801—304 classification of ..... 290, 291 comparison of, with ig- neous rocks....... 307—810 fusion-structures in, 292—300, 304—310 Ineativote elena 298, 299, 300 microscopic structure of, 291—297 mineral shih eee 293, 294 organic appearances in, 297, 304807 specific gravity of....... 298 velocity 0h ascent 299 Millerile.’:...2 4. Sees Oy lis Miinetite:.. ...420)se eee "i 12, 16 Minerals, action of organic ACIC Sn ON) yewe ee eee 1—18 in meteorites....... 293, 294 of Staten Island.... 165, 181 Miocene rocks of the West Indlésts nies oe eee 119, 191 Modern beds of Staten Island, 178—181 Moly bdenites {= essen eee 108 Montserrat, W. 1... soeeeeeee 192 Muscovite... «vic ones 12 as INaeyacite:.) sje 3 1h Natrolitienin0c.2. coos 12) 16 Index. 395 PAGE. PAGE. LY CAUING) Be ee 31 | Porto Rico, geology of, 117, INiepnelite tne ciet ccc. e 6,11, 16 120, 189, 191 NGS. Wie 118, 192 Jand-shells of ....... 119, 124 New Grenada, new bird from.. 356 | Post-pliocene rocks of the West New Jersey, geology of, See Hudson County, N. J. Niagara Group. . LYiCGOiS 2 J poke ee One eter Nitro-citric mixture, for mine- MERE MMAIN SIS )sc0/ task Cte Raleee 9—17 @lioy fossils Of. oss s5.. 45. 197?—244 Carboniferous. . 226—232 Hiamiltom?: 32: 215—218 Helderberg. .... 198—211 Marcellus. ..213, 214, 2o4, 230 Subcarboniferous. ..._ 219226 | Oil-springs, origin of...... 364, 3865 | MING CIE So. oe le 6, 18 Oligosiderous meteorites....... 291 Olivenite 3 oe eae Te te le AG OVingimes =e - ss 25. 12; i. 293, 294 | OYCUIUCH NCIS) eee aes 31 | Organic appcarances in meteor- TGS ee eee Beutteros 297, 304—307 Organic matter, in meteorites, | 300—804 Organic acids, action of upon MEN TASB et aps) bare sates 3 1—18 Oriskany beds. ........2.. 149, 160 (Qi ONT ore Sie eee cee a U0, Uy Onihoclasesss i. hs os. Tibs ee alee Oxides, mineral, treated with organic acids....2, 10. 11, 15—18 Ozone, occurrence of with hy- Gioszent peroxide... sa4s6 2227 HAGASItez kak 2. Jes cee iy, Lidl ss 107 aMAMerOnMatlOM. .... + sasc ee 189 Peat of Staten Island...... 179, 182 He Cuolinetee sys oe lek hace Sine 2a 6 Peroxide of hydrogen accom- AMY ING OZONE. -/)2-5 09-0: 22—26 Petalite..... eer DelulemmaltS Pharmacosiderite........ We, UB, 6 PeMO SOWIE M cae sales de all ily Phosphates, treated with or- ganic acids...... 2, 12, 18, 15—18 Pliocene rocks of the West ATTAIN ESR eg te ae easy evan. a retete 192 Rolivmasitelc: casa sess: AL, 17 Polysiderous meteorites........ 291 Portage Group, 140—142, 145, 149, 156, 160 148, 149, 151— —160 | Indies canes womans 119, 192 Post-tertiary beds of Staten Islands. Re ai MI 173178 ‘Potassie hydrate: 2.2.5: - - 373, 375 pytogallate..-....-- 373, 376 Potsdam sandstone.........--. 174 rehinites crc ester aera NOE eealan rochloniiee nesses (Ald UG IPIROUISIMKOY oo bo ko ude oc 3, 10, iisy) US) Pseudomalachite.........7, 13, 16 esilomelaneeeseecm eee eee ivi emia Ounite sn anjacream sens By Or yy Say OSS fever /sne. dtes deste auc eenNns Os a Pyrites in bituminous shales... 366 HeayiT OLUSILE: as) esos. ccueepeeusy-yetaies UG JPRROMMOM OMNI Se ococcococbscce 16 Pyr ORES a easta eco eee ore Galil, ate Pyrrhotite Ee Eo avy wea ch rene 16 (QUURITI eect oe oie eees 5, LO, us @uaternary beds of Staten lislleaycle acces eerans eee 173—178 TRS CVeIIGEY Colestellecicrcece AraeetnL ee 3, WO, 9 Ne RaCkoMnGe Wiel Geos Son sees rap elge) eRe GIMaNNG eRe ses or ne Sees eerene U2. ay IR oOdoGhnosiver an es - lee cie 16 TRINOCKOMNTIO Sees Go aelo ecee c 12 iG IRINVOMIGs otro mee eco 4 292, 807, 308 Richmond Co., N. Y., eeology of, see Staten Island... . .161—182 Ripidolite S150 EIS MEE ee 12; 18 Rock oils of Ohio.........858, 367 JROTC ie atere sor rene arenes 4,10, 18 Sada maVViae leeks ee 118, 119, 124, 192 Sadi Carnot, on thermotics..19, 21 CHIMES gas oo epee pen abee oe 18 San Domingo, geology of.. 117, 121, 189, 191 Jand-shells of. 122, 123, 124 Sanitary influence of sabe {GOT GL Santa Cruz, W. I. 118126 "186, 189, 191 flora and fauna of. . 117—126 GEOOBAy Oss sen cocse 119, 120 supposed desiccation of, 125, 126 Sargasso seas, deposits of...... 361 Scheelites sce soe soo Sols ls Serpentine.....::...-..- ital, al ales Serpentine rocks of N. J..... 30, 31 396 PAGE. Serpentine rocks of Staten TRIG W iG ay See aeetence 164, 165, 182 Shore-wear of Staten Island.... 181 Dideriten sesh eens Seo 17 Siderites (meteorites) .......... 290 Silicates, treated val organic CEG ovo sasogal 1125118 Silver and organic Ce eer: 17 Silver-bearing ores, treatment CO ao oa eT eee cies Tc 81—113 Sram elitube ayer \Aln acllcu ae eae ela 17 SMM NAOMI Seo gsesanesuossone 16 Sodus Bay, lake ridges at...... 264 Soils, sanitary influence of..60, 61 Sombrero, W. I..118, 119, 123, 192 South America, former north- ward extension Of.........- WG Specific gravity of meteorites .. 298 Sphaleniieesennce cee panera 16 >] OUOKe! eyed Sree aoe Soar ness A Al) alts} Spirifers, relations among, 148—160 variations Of....... 156—159 SJOOCWMMACNE. seo 440 ones050¢ 12 WG Sporasiderous meteorites. ..... 291 St. Bartholomew, W.I........ : 118, 119, 124, 189—191 St. Croix, W. I., see Santa Cruz. StaHustatius: \Wislee soe 118, 192 St. John, W. 1... 185, 186, 187, 188 Stan Karttis Wiggles seas eae 192 St. Lawrence valley in the ice- GIO Celie ener eM te se 268—266 SteeMiartimvaVVewl tgs weer 118, 119, 124, 189-191 St. Thomas, W.I. 126, 185—188 Staten Island, geology of . .161—182 BAGUIO Ne Seisaaods ae 163—168 champesron levels sees 181 Cretaceous........- 170—173 GUE esc Ben chee 173—175 TINLEXOEIS o nas ooh oe ae 171, 181 MONA Se wei e neta ae eee 73 iron-ores.. 172, 175—177, 181 TAMMUAVSICAM ISI, 5 Sea eas Gs 165, 181 modern deposits. ... 178—181 Quaternary se 173—178 Marielle eee ee tere eee 162 terminal moraine... 173, 174 BR ADisede tice feck 168, 169, 181 MURTASS Mala eae eens 168, 169 Siaunolite sons wote sens tile alte} Steam-engines, limit of expan- STOMP ee Nee ces 3538—3)5 SIGNI he gados asa ace AL ty, alley StU IO ee Suey Ais ees sce Ra 16 Stalntte ns ke en eee os oe ale 12, 16 Index. PAGE Strontianite...0.-. 4... 16 Subcarboniferous fossils of Ohio, 219—226 Sulphides treated with organic ACLUSG ee eee 2, 9, 10; 1548 Sulphur, 2.30. eee OO Ne maley Sulphur-springs, origin of ..... 367 Surface eeolozy of Western New a ork RS) 249— 266 291 Tables showing relations of car- bon minerals............ 269, 270 Talesc iii des. {ae ne ae alc} Tar-springs’. 20.20. ee 279 Temperature of meteorites, 298 — 300 Tennamnpiies .). eee 4 Vos Ale Tentaculite limestone...... 149, 160 Nephroitie 22-52 hee Oy il Terminal moraine on Staten Island): ccc eee 173; 174 Tertiary petroleunisess seen 278 Tertiary rocks of the West dics ee 119, 185, 18 Tetrahedrite... 2... eee 17 i Thermotics, views of Carnot ALD OI: =. 2%. 2520. eta ee IST il Thomsonite .). :.2.:. 25...) SOnsletenans ‘Tiemannitese: 0s eee Beeline Til, features of in Scotland.... 262 in Western N. Y.....255—258 Titanite:2:2 30. aaa Gs ile ie Topaz TRE R oe ene 6, tit, 18 Torbernitie: sec yee 8, 13). 16% ‘Toronto, ancient lake beaches at 263 Tortola, W. I.... 122, 185, 187, 188 Tourmaline... eee ee ile} Rrachy te iy. or ene 292, 307, 308 Transit of Venus, see Venus. Trap-rocks of New Jersey... 85—50 of Staten Island, 168, 169, 181 Triassic rocks of New Jersey, 32—50 of Staten Island..... 168, 169 TramidadeeivViss sere 190, 191 pitch=lalkexoite een 279, 280 rip hiv lites eee eee 1, Lena Triple. yc oseee mere 7, 12) at Mulliy: lintestone seer 145, 251 Wlexiteo.sa% Sos eee 8) 3 1G namie as eer eee Wi Upper Helderberg group... .251, 261 Upper Llandovery beds........ 150 Wraninite.c. 3. Sie ee eee iY Utica shale. .276, 280, 283, 357, 360, 363, 367 Pe | Index. 397 PAGE. PAGE. Vegetable tissue, Paes ion West Indies, physical geogra- Shino ee 268, 269 PLA Ole ccs pet, 124126 evolved products of. .269, EVA! Olen aeods coc 120, 121 270, 274281 TOCKSiO Lemar ae 119, 186—192 residual products of 269-274 | Western New York, ancient Vegetation, see Flora. Graimage Oboes alse sarees 263—266 Velocity of meteorites......... 299 drift-deposits of... ..251—262 Venus, atmosphere of...... 388, 389 elevations in... ........ 265 disk-markings on... 389, 390 lake-basins of. ..251, 253, 260 transit of in 1882. ..3884—390 Palzeozoic rocks of. .249—255 Wesuvianite.{.::.........0; lf, 18 Vieque, W.I., 119, 122, 124, 185, 186 Virein Gorda, W.1........ 185, 186 | Virgin Islands. ..117—124, 185—192 | AVIV AL ATT oc yaeh) «) oo scefsp ace oeiNaltle 16 | Volcanic rocks, comparison of with meteorites........ 307—310 Volcanic rocks of the West IUnC IGS oie teens 186, 187, 192 Wag... cee etna ier Washinetomite. o.5..5.. 2% AO. iG WWraterhime eroup ic... h. 60.2. 00 Whales c ote o's rss ece sles U,, U3, UG Wirvenley, shales. ..252.4/5.42 360 Wenlock beds........ 149, 151, 153 WfeTnerite <2 ..65. .cSe nats 12, 18 West Indies, geology of, 117—121, 186—192 land-shells of. ..119, 121—124 ADDENDA PAM GRUIEC™., Her. tioce Sve Papen se aie 280 Algz, as sources of carbona- eEOUSH CEP OSIUS: mis sae erieisers 285 2A\STOLING I aaa eer 270, 279, 280 Asphaltic coals....... 270, 280, 281 Centre of glaciation in Western IN GW: 1 Cir eee eee 258—260 Clinton sroup......-.. 250, 255, 256 Coals, varieties of......... ie Diamond oriein of .......522: 281 Diappleritewadie cs so. 6s... 281, 282 Genesee slates............. 251, 261 Cor AMANIUILCL i fee Seles inlet 280. Graphite, origin of... .270, 272, 273, 274, 281, 304 Hamilton group. .251, 261, 276, Waillemaiten ny nda eek ets 12, 16 AWailh Tite? s4/esicuu eo erd crater 16 Wiollastonitess s225. 44.08 eee NYicllomeomite Sime ae seal 364 Wiioliteamitene sss er tS, NS Zl Wautlttemiter 52.55.) ieee th, ey. ALR Yucatan, birds of, 245—248, 287, 288 VASO ES se eid 2s ave ean 45 Zinc desilverization ........ 81—113 Brodie’s method, 99, 100, 103 Faber du Faur’s method, 99, 1083—108, 113 Flack’s method....... 95, 99 UNC no Ok eR Re i7/ FA COMMEMEE Pe oa Olean 1S AOI SIC eas iee a hist ah sae ey, Til, ils) Agozannine lee ysis ao as ences 360 TO INDEX EMUIMOMPSINAl Hota. po)stae clots apeusters 276 ANGIE seed 6), leet ahaa RR REE rea ar 281, 282 Medina sandstone..... 249, 250, 250, 206, 261 Niagara group. . .200—206, 278, 284 Ontario basin, ancient drainage OLR PRE ys vcle ss scoaeie ss 263—266 OOK EITC IE arctacisers «sis nats cere Sy. 279 JPR RAIA Be eee per entaene 278, 279 Re Ab eye nent co vate o's 2538, 271, 272 Petroleums, differences in, 278, 279 oxydation Oliseyemeare 279, 280 Roriage? STOUp. 2/2246, c2 5. 201, 261 SANNA OTOWP 2's seer om ans os 200—255 INDEX TO NOMENCLATURE. [The names of new species are printed in Roman letters ; synonyms and species to which reference is made are in /talics; names of sub-families, families, or higher divisions, in SMALL CAPITALS. | PAGE. Actinodesma recia............- 215 Subrecta trees nance 215, 244 Ancyrocrinus spinosus........- 288 NOG asec ts See ea ee 138 Allorisma Andrewsi......... . 222 CLGUGO Ee eee net mates 222 Masxvillensisis:< teres | 222 (DLCURODISILG eee ee 233 win) ovetoellias & eG oe ec canine 4 145 Amphibulima patula........... 124 ATeopes Clever, 7M neat ee ee 191 ATLOMUA toe scene Cele 137, 138 PATEY ACM CULGT Sian = tym leee ee 240 Aulacophyllum sulcatum ...... 238 ALO OLALCOnNULC Emre ee ete 237 [UL OTIOUIS coat: ohsiaitie a ee gay ore 237 LUD OT OTITULS eee een ee 201 WA a Cul asda cape eaten mete Sead 357 Aviculopecten crassicostata..... 240 equilaterd...........- 213, 244 DONGIIS cece Nat cieys eaves nce 240 Bellerophon alternodosus...... 225 MONGfOTUONUS 0.) =e eee 225 INEDORTYE. once oem ee 242 WPCLODS 2) ssphys 6 sa ae ek eee ord 242 ROP UUGUUS corre ah.) Set seisre 242 RU CAT Ta a enie meee cle ean 205 Bulimulus elonyatus ....... 122, 123 CHUM CHIES Si seiois Haddad a6.c 122 JROGPRCURIS, 6 Lob bes 85 123, 124 TUCO UBUISS SOAs beaded ac 123 YEAST AIRS Seto ste mene at Beni 122 Cannopora columnaris.......... 236 DENS Cyan aya neue pe ea eee 236 Cara COls isis ier iere sete seek 123 GONGCOUG iret activ ee 122 CHCELLENS ©. SEPM ces Clee auc ee 122 HUSH ide uae 6 SAG peeo5 Oe 122 DSCUOMRMOP SS .c6sBaadacac 122 STRECGHUM Ds sia scison 506. 122 PAGE. Catopterus.)... tek eee eee 49 Centurus rubriventris.......5... 247 UTiGOlOT. ee 247, 248 Cerithium giganteuwm........... 190 ChzeturalGaumeiiae= aoe see 245 MelaSGiCd.. .).- seers 246 Votaths.: 3.1. 52 eee 246 Chondropoma basicarinatum.... 121 ONO RONKIMUUD soos son ce - 121 PUlient : cd A ee 123 Santacruzense..-...-- 121, 123 Tortolense......- 122, 370, 371 Chonetes aeutiradiata.......... 239 arcuala, 222 ae eee 239 deflecta). (22 eae 239 MUOMOROM hs oo 09c00c0can- 239 TEVeTSA,. 2.4).22 see 218, 248 Scilla. Da. see 218, 243 Vondellaniae eee eee 239 Chrysotis.. 0.2.0), 2a 381 CaniirOnS)-4 eee 381 Cistula consepta,......-.ssseee av TUPUGOTIS®. oe el ee een 125 Codaster pyramidatus ...-...... 238 Coleolus’. 2. 0... eee 203, 204 Coleoprion:.- >.) eee eee 203 COLUMBID 2)..: 7 5) seen tet 287 Conocardium Ohioense......... 240) UG ONGIE = see eee 240 Conularia elegantula............ 242 Coscinium infundibuliforme..... , 199 Crania) carbonanak seer eee 229 Crenistmigtdi~-- ane 238 Homiltonice. .. > - nee 238 modésta..... +. See 229 Permiand .. / ose 229 Cyathocrinus inequidactylus... 219 SOMMETSI 4 eae 226 Cyathophyllum rugosum... 200, 2387 LENCO. : a Ae 237 Cyclostoma Kazika.. 7. o-mene izail Cylindrella chordata........... 123 Index. 399 PAGE. Cylindrella pontifica............ 127 CADIZ. cE OR EOE SESE 190 (CAVE NSILIUD yo a te 309 Onpnitaenponrectas. «22. a. 6. se: 150 Cyrtina Hamiitonie............ 259 Cyrtoceras Conradi............ 209 Cneraceum.. ss. s/c: 209, 242 QMOERTZE SOS ape enn Siac 242 UNC DUTMT De ae 5 eso Sane 242 Cystiphyllum Americanum...... 288 ORIGENSOL 3c a a 238 Dalmania Calypso............. 243 LEIGIOINTR a SAO ES Eek a Nee ieeae 243 Onioensé:. =. Bens: gace 243 S CLETUS se wet aS Tae CE 243 Welthiymislevis cs. ce smelt ak 140 SUCH TUNILCOL ams Siete igen tare 150 Dentalium Martini........ 2038, 242 Dictyocrinus dactyloides........ 199 IDRC NUN Sin Gna Seas Oar 366 WD ISCIM ANGTORGIS a= meni) tse 238 | WOMENSIS: 62) 0S hence 213, 24 IMGCKamarer es 2 Bios toe t. 228 TROCLDUT IS sk ee al oS Me ae ee 213 WVESSOUTIENSISS Aa 1 esse oe 229 AUDUATIT: it eae cn ete oe 229 Dolatocrinus multiradiatus...... 238 THOVOUN OHIO SC ty ming ee ase 23 Emmonsia Emmonsi........... 237 Eridophyllum Simcoense........ 237 SPHOUIUID eee Mer oat ears 237 Verneuilanum............ 237 DMO CANIS sco ue ec es see ese 226 UD ECELD aed Petes GSO nae «i 241 Eupachycrinus tuberculatus..... 227 Bhar any. DNA. dierae ma tents sie cath 137 Eurypterus Eriensis........... 196 WOUGSUUSUGUS reed tee ae gaa ee 196 microphthalmus .......... 196 ETUDES a2) = sys cee ERNE 196, 197 Favosites basaltica............. 237 CF OLELIUOL CO, <8 osm, ae 237 COUSDILETICH = t.85 ee 237 WET LOLON” 5. occas ee ee 237 pleurodictyoides........... 237 OLY MOTI: ieee 237 WUGDINGiOer cra Ss): roe 237 I ORNANO AR TTD An heya 2. s- <7 e 287 Formicarius moniliger.......... 288 7 OEEULLINCG I FSR 92 ce 288 BIOL CUVONAis shes else oes ee 381 fii S(61 (22.0) ete eee 382 Gilbertsocrinus spiniferus....... 215 Gilbertsocrinus spinigerus . .. Gomphoceras amphora. 207, 242 CAMTINUD so Gop abs ede 208, 242 Fly aii hss 2 206, 242 QUOTE aes ayer 209 Sciotense. .......- 208, 242 Goniasteroidocrinus spinigera... 243 Goniophora perangulata .... .. 240 Grammysia bisulcata....... 215, 244 CiyOCEr aS Mia ee ere ene 232 Columbiense........ 210, 243 cyclops Be eaeeee 210, 243 ICLEG OMS: Bie wees Phere 243 TMS, notin oas6 Ge 243 TXOTMOROUUS cos bcacs 5s 211 seminodosum. .. .. 211, 243 Hadriophyllum D’Orbignyi ..... 237 ANT OTIS Sc Oe ys seen apa ee 205 Helicina picta .... Alice Weta 124. Heliophyllum confluens Ber ase ae 238 SEL OULU Rou soe ag) sree 238 Helix areolata..... 133, 134, 13 6, 137 USDCRS Geter eee 129139 NORA oc os one 5 aac 138, 139 Cabjonniensism sc. ase 152 CREDLISIFIONG) sae ee eee 139 Dupelithouarsti... 0.0.0... 139 HOLCLO me cetorst al Seah nd sy ee 138 GOD Veen is) ee ee 138 HURON ha o's hele oe occ 134, 138 Kellettii. . -181—1385, 139 LOUIS eee one 1388, 136, 137 Pandore. . .132, 133, 136, 187 TRPOMTOUI De tact Aik a ee 139 FUPMCUMAR I & de gbvese Glsy hae 138 Stearnsiand...... 131, 185, 138 UDMMUOSUMITH I oa ke aa oon sess 138 GUSTS ee (nee ee 139 INFO, ca = 131, 134, 135, 138 VECiChivn Bean nee 136, 137 Hemiprocne biscutata.......... 306 TUNIMO TOG ee eae cert ne 355, 306 CMLICOMANUS Gs or eee ee 356 ZONULT US Ser ae SA ONY Rea 356 EeRCOCCLASI Es eee 211 Holopea Newtonensis.......... 224. ROU OO Oey ns eats ee 241 AGG bys PEELS eee tm oe nora eerey = 49 Isonema bellatula......... ..... 241 CIYURESRU GEnweee hoccadeae 241 LOT Secs ene eene eeoee oe OF 241 Juneus Gerardi... ....0. 0.05. 178 400 Index. PAGH. Med aeBarnisi tests say ccen em ee 217 Leiorhynchus limitaris, 213, 2384, 244 INGOT as Ose nio dae a5-6 5 233 Leperditia alia........ 194, 197, 198 VCR, (aaah os oo odo 4: 197 Mepidosteusuecta.: 625s re. ce) Leptoptila albifrons ........ 287, 288 hulivsiveninise = — ease eon Lichenalia lichenoides........... 238 Temimn'ee ale aes Oe cca rcten carte eee 254 pliner mlapeigedinns se ee 213, 243 Manni... .. .212, 213, 234, 2438 Hoxonema Beda... 4% eee eee 241 Eomiltoniqes 4.4 an ss 205, 241 [OUP CUNO 6 5 a eaco ad as 204, 241 FOUN Darren oNe AO eicicus oe c 241 plicahinaeee Aes ee 231 unulteardium. 2253.6 oe tcl ls aeugsonl Macroceramus #ieneri...... 127, 128 FOOMIMES asi Aa podasgc 127, 128 SLOMOUUS ine ee eee 124 Macrocheilus priscus....... 204, 242 Subcorpullemtusec-)2 er = 224 OGTUMICOSWUS ny seus rar nae niet 204 Mecalodontys cadence cera 244 Mecalomuss on .joua ocr seems 244 Megistocrinus spinulosus ,...... 238 MenistelayOeUaiee exes ite teeeeerer 194 TSU: oeeraileoee SOMMER I oe: 240, S CHUL eee le de ee 240 | Mich elimazConvet@rays aie. ts 237 AYECGUIN On \retou chcaie Re Keyeseere ke 25 Microphiysalworten! 2.2 e sc. - 128 Modiomorpha elliptica...... ... 241 (NANO OING) on ard tee ain OF oo 6 241 Murchisonia desiderata......... 242 LAE HG scree eter: 242 GDS OLELO Ae ocelot arate tage 242 Mytilarca alienuaia....:........ 202 percarinata..5.:...- 202, 240 FNOWOROR 9s ago ou 202, 240 INDICA A: ieercies mine eee eaeeea 190 Naticopsis equistriata........... 241 ChELACEU Mees ren noe 241 LOBES NESS ERE Re NR ets 241 TOU pie Bestest ae ES 230 Otome er ee eee 230 NCTA Chine csr ie ees easeoate 223 INfaruilicns: Omiowitlse seis ease 231 DEACON Sore ose od segs 226 SHEClLAULS = ieee er teeter 232 subquadrangularis....... 282 INeritag tke o8 seein ete ees 190 CONOULCH AT Tee eee Pete 190 PAGE. Nucleocrinus Verneuili......... 238 Nucleospira concinna........+.. 240 rotund ata: so. eee 194 Nuphar polysepala............. 361 INyassatce thats ts eee 216, 244 ENP G rhe) Gig co6 6 6:6 216, 244 Oncocerasy 152.4225. eee 209 Orthis! bicostata,- ==. 157 flabellum. 3s eeeeeeee 201 TAVIO. 33 se 238 PTOPINGUG.. \ a. eee 238 SUOLORDONG |e ee 145 Vanuxemi. eee 238 Orthoceras nuntium........ sees Ohioense 452 55 Se eee 242 Profundis 242 Orthonema Newberryi.......7-. 242 Palzoneilo Barrisi ............ 217 similise. . ¢ 25:0. eee 217 Paracyclas, liraia. 9. ae 24() OGCIUERIQIUS: 5 nee 240 Ohidensis..c= 5) sae eeeeLO Pentamerella arvata............ 240 Pentamerus pes-OVis........... 195 Phacops-rand.. .-em eee 243 Pholadella: 2.2. 222 305. aera 233 Newbernyit =.=. ae eee 233 POTUSE pee one ‘ala See 190 Pinenia: Schramm... eee 124 VieQuensish.. == teen 124 Pinnanjlenicosiatq. eee 221 Maxvillensist- 2) ees 221 Plagioptycha . ...... 5) eee 123 REMOTING. . 6 seat 122 Santacruzensis.......0.6.. 122 Platyceras atlenualum.........- 241 Ducculentiim: sae ene 241 COORD Goan sos 2c0c ce 241 CONIC: “nae eer 244 CUMOSUIMN eee eee eee 241 MUTE SPMOS Ua smear 241 squalodens.......-. 202, 241 Platyostoma lichas..... ...... 241 Pleurotomaria adjutor.......... 242 Dorissac seeks. 242 Bebesccalie: | eee 242 TUONO hs. 242 Mississippiensis.......... 233 leatilhngera.)... . J .e eee 233 Plumulites Jamesi. .seeseee 218 Newberry ies aire ee eae Polymitay. 0) 43. see 137 Polyphemopsis melanoides.... - 225 Polypterus.). S22 0 eee 49 Index. 401 PAGE. PAGE. Productella spinulicosta......... 239 | Spirifer setigerus........... 148, 150 Proetus crassimarginatus ....... 243 SUNDIED Aniston ee 151, 152 Pterinea decussala............. 214 subumbona...... 145, 149, 160 [alesse age angen 215, 240 SUL CONUS anette 148—154, 160 GyieT NUS ee 2138, 214, 244 TRO ULES Ae nit ce ee 149, 160 EU a PCHICLOG. - sis. ie ee 125 VOUUREME, 5 oo = line 149, 160 [OVUM bbe peldtn oe 8be 6c 127 | Spirifera acuminata............ 209 Pyranga roseigularis........... 247 (CLIK NGT A eres rin bio OE 239 AUT IMIS Car aoesannod 6 239 IES MDD) Reece cries 191 UNOTICLON eee 144—160, 239 Receptaculites dactyloides....... 199 GNCGOTIGA We eee s )- 212, 284, 239 WDEVONICUS ri -n)-so% ,- 198, 236 CP EETI rperct chore onde Sear 239 infundibulformis .......-. 199 UE RO ints pido OS ee DEE Cid Et 209 OUT Sain eeeere 6 ocac nage 198 macrothyris......... SEES OBO EROSTON anise we cate cievciinversiane's 190 Moia.......149, 213. 235, 248 Rhynchonella IBOATS acl anne 240 MOOR okt Oe 239 RAR OUR Gs 2) Oke ais laces me ee) MOR CUTS ni Oem Ree 929 [DOLE Go OES ero veka ee ee 240 O/T oe ae esciAle rie 239 yr awed... 27 eo ens os: 194 SEQINETUC ae rane eee 939 TARNICOSInooacoss 0 oeP 201, 240 UGMICOS QIAN weeeaaten ee ee 239 TUNA «eal COR EET OS Te 240 LUOZOK Blip nee o 215, 244 Spiriferina cristata... .. 149, 154, 155 “Sanguinolites Sanduskyensis.... 241 WS CULDLC MoS a eee ee eae 149 Geoihus WPCOMES I: saeep ees sea geet rs 174 Oclonlicdlas arr ne At ae ee 154 Sedgwickia pleuropistha Sep nis eek 233 ROUEN docimc san codee ee BY) Septipora (CASIRGRSIS Sole Sam Beco BE Pim SHE DOS Vitae. 5). ce taicteon ta Sane eh Sieg 124 Spartina junced...............- Se Su ChOPOmanGalbertiy. 2. ss sje 238 Spermophila........... Soe ee 381 | Streptorhynchus flabellum, 200, 238 TUPLE HRO NS Sor Fan cy ces cycles 388 HuayrelnrenUULN Une vere sss aie 193 OWIWlss ps anoe doe vosce oe 382 JEONG ES Rtas eae pci 239 Spirifer aculeatus.......... 149, 154 ; Stromatopora granulosa. ....... 236 DIGOSIOMUS Eno) soi 34 ois. 148, 151 TOUUIGK he Net eadah eeneee 236 152, 158, 160 DORGELOSOM eet) ia sae 236 CIS] OLS OI oe 148—158, 160 Sanduskyensis, 02.2. .22 15. 236 curvatus....144, 152, 154, 155 SUDSUMIGLCH Gl. Seve 4 eaafass)/thee os 236 CYCIOPLETUS 55.0 ag » LEON OROD MIA ctr. Ge | Akela s es a 123 CISFUTIGIU ara eee hha ok 2 159 | hittitASeee ap keeesuococe 122 CLCUCTLUS erate 149, 150, 1538 PHS! paca el eee 122 fimbriatus.......144—160, 239 | Strophodonta amplu........... 239 GlaDeTe ar stare 144, 145, 152, 155 | SC CIELY eae et attracts 174 QVOUNOSUS oe eee eee eee eee 149 GEMSSUA WO nan: hake ae eer 239 ips... s 2135 es eee 149 LTS RCs soaacobcabe jee ey WEISS = ores nee 140—160 » inequiradiata.......-+.+-- 239 WCRLULS =. 2 ar) eee 148, 149 TOT ete eacteedic ape eer 239 macropleurus ........2... 174 JECHT SC npoden wapoo ee 239 UVGHO: «6 149, 218, 285, 243 [DERI G beac maison ec 214, 239 PIT COULOIUSS cl xs 0s sos eaten 159 SUICINSS soaosoeccar os 239 MLOUESEUS), «0 0s 6 < swiss 149, 160 | Strophomena rhomboidalis. . 174, MUCTONGUS .......4.. 159, 175 236, 239, 248 OctOCOSUHMUS ....... 0.0: 149, 160 | Stylastreea Anna....-.-... 199, 237 perlamellosus)...-.--+...- 149 | Succinea approximans.......... 122 (LGHUS:.).oememe <<. 4.2 sane 149 ITS sen golacpobe Epes 123, 124 PTEMAUUTUS we... ... 149, 160 | Synocladia biserialis........... 220 pseudolinedtus........ 148, 149 ORS THIAUSIS 5 SG5d6 Shoe wg cee 221 ROOLOUNS, << .\= » = Metal 149, 150 PAGWISOIG Jeg coonesonoooe 220 WOQORMU Sc .25 «'.,: - aR 149, 160 | Syringopora Hisingeri.......... 237 402 Index. PAGE. PAGE. Syringopora, Maciurei......... 287 | Tropidoleptus carinatus........ 240 (OOWNOH hs seo. olsn 6080 408 204 | Tudora:....c2s.-2 oe eee 121 Turbo Kearneyi....... \ eee 241 Tentaculites fissurella.......... 307 Sumordanane see 241 scalariformis.... 212, 234, 235 SCUCUIO Ne geiaytrelcs sie Seine Matte 242) > Voluta. 2.0.02 enn: eee 190 Terebratula carneoides.......... 191 SUMMOTMPs wage ne taaceocse 240 | Xenophora antiqua...........- 241 Thelidomus........... 123 CUSCONCT ean ewer ania s 6 an 123 | Zaphrentis cornicula............ 207 NECTUOUT eusapy easel es te orotee hae 122 Hwardsi. Wha eee 237 PLOLODUISS ai alain pice Coun eas 122 Giganted... 0.2 eae ae 237 Airey e lina aes ste ei 1s aie aan a te 1238 prolificd, . 2.2... Paiste co 237 Trachypora elegantula.......... 237 Worthent).2.-.\.> eee 237 Mremamopus 2 he ayaa wean 205 | Zeacrinus Mooresi............. 227 MinemialOcCerases eee ieee 205 TOMMEROS MUMS > ooodusc8cu5s 228 Ohioense....... 205) 206," 242" | Zonitesvonboreuse 71 see 369 Trematocrinus spiniferus.... . 215 petrophilus!) )yaneeeeeere 369 SPUUGCLUS ae aie ene 215 UIT UCUILES s,s eee 369 Triodopsis Levettei........ 115, 116 Wiheatleyaliee sane 368, 369 ERRATA. Page 103, line 19 from the top, for ot read to. Page 237, line 20 from the top, for Hesingeri read Hisingeri. Page 285, line 15 from the top, for Beckham read Peckham. Page 288, line 4 from the top, for Furnarius read Formicarius. Page 333, under 1857, first column, for Geuthier read Geuther. Page 336, under 1861, first column, for Plauté read Plante. Page 341, line 7 from the top, for Anz. Ann. Chim. read A. ¢. p. Page 349, line 22 from the top, for Wein. read Wien.* Page 357, line 5 from the foot, for Protocardia read Lunulicardium. Page 3738, line 10 from the foot, for illuminates read illuminants. ae Ve me INC N AGES OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOLUME II, 1880—82. i ge The ‘“‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of Natural History, are continued under the above name by the New York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, beginning with the year 1877. It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number to consist of not less than thirty-two pages (octavo), with or without plates. Price of Yearly Subscription, to resident and honorary members of the Academy, $2.00, or 60 cents a single number; to non-residents of New York City, $3.00, or 51.00 a number ; to residents of the City, not members of the Academy, $5.00, or $1.50 a number. The Academy has for sale a number of back volumes of the Annals of the Lyceum, each containing twelve or more numbers ; the price per volume is $4.00 with uncolored plates, or $5.00 with colored plates. The Academy has established a Publication Fund, contributors to which, in the sum of $100 at one time, are entitled to all the Scientific Publications of the Academy appearing subsequently to the payment of their contri- butions. Communications should be addressed to Pror. D. S. MARTIN, Chairman of Publication Commitiee, 236 West Fourth Street. Or to JOHN H. HINTON, M. D., Treasurer, 41 West Thirty-second Street. (> Any person residing within the United States, on sending the amount of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive the numbers as they appear, without further cost. Agents in London, TRUBNER & Co. CONTENTS. XXII—On the Origin of the Carbonaceous Matter in Bituminous Shales. By Jonn 8. NEWBERRY.......--. 2Jhe0e nee eee XX11—Description of Two New Species of Zonites from Tennessee. By THomAs BUAND.. 00055. secahs . co. ee ee XXIJI¢-Description of Two Species of Land Shells from Porto Rico, W. I. By Pror. Epwarp von MarTENS........-- XXIV—An Apparatus for Rapid Gas Analyses. By Artuur H. ELuiorr, (with Plates XXiland X XI)? <7 Paes XXV—Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Genera Chrysotis, Formicivora and Spermophila. By GrorGe N. TVA WREINCE 0. she's oclevs wee aren otis ce cules teh XXVI—Observations of the Transit of Venus, December, 1882. By JOHN Ko JREGS <5 niles Sos cae toes eee SMITHSONIAN INST /6—6hUEE ——==S —— 3 9088 01302 0953